Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 General characteristics of thework
2.1 How to teach foreign languages(general remarks)
2. The Main Part
1.2 Comparing instructed and naturalsettings for language learning
2.2 Natural and instructionalsettings
3.2 Classroom comparisons
4.2 Five principles for classroomteaching
5.2. The principle getting right fromthe beginning
6.2. The principle of saying what youmean and meaning what you say
7.2. The principle of listening
8.2. Teach what is teacheable
9.2. Getting right in the end
10.2. Grammar aquisition: Focusing onpast tenses and conditionals (work-out)
11. 2. The implications of classroomresearch for teaching
3. Conclusion
4. Bibliography
1. Introduction
2.1. How to teach foreign languages (general remarks)
Every few years, new foreign language teaching methods arrive on thescene. New textbooks appear far more frequently. They are usually proclaimed tobe more effective than those that have gone before, and, in many cases, thesemethods or textbooks are promoted or even prescribed for immediate use. Newmethods and textbooks may reflect current developments in linguistic/appliedlinguistic theory or recent pedagogical trends. Sometimes they are said to bebased on recent developments in language acquisition theory and research. Forexample, one approach to teaching may emphasize the value of having studentsimitate and practise a set of correct sentences while another emphasizes theimportance of encouraging ‘natural’ communication between learners. How is a teacherto evaluate the potential effectiveness of new methods? One important basis forevaluating is, of course, the teacher’s own experience with previous successesor disappointments. In addition, teachers who are informed about some of thefindings of recent research are better prepared to judge whether the newproposals for language teaching are likely to bring about positive changes instudents’ learning.
Our graduation paper is about how English language can be learned atclassrooms on the bases of new pedagogical technologies with having taking intoconsideration the national aspect, i.e. influencing native Uzbek language andtypical mistakes and difficulties in learning English by Uzbek speakingstudents. First of all we have written it for English language teachers whoteach this language to Uzbek students at schools at 5-6 grades, but it couldalso be useful for afult learners who are only going to learn a wonderful worldof English. We believe that information about findings and theoretical views insecond language acquisition research can make you a better judge of claims madeby textbook writers and proponents of various language teaching methods. Suchinformation, combined with insights gained from your experience as a languageteacher or learner, can help you evaluate proposed changes in classroommethodology
2.The Main Part
1.2. Comparing instructed and natural settings for languagelearning[1]
Most people would agree that learning a second language in a naturalacquisition context or ‘on the street’ is not the same as learning in the classroom.Many believe that learning ‘on the street’ is more effective. This belief maybe based on the fact that most successful learners have had exposure to thelanguage outside the classroom. What is special about natural languagelearning? Can we create the same environment in the classroom? Should we? Orare there essential contributions that only instruction—and not naturalexposure—can provide?
In this chapter, we will look at five proposals which theorists have madefor how second languages should be taught. We will review research on secondlanguage learning which has been carried out in classroom settings. This willpermit us to explore further the way in which second language research andtheory contribute to our understanding of the advantages and the limitationsof different approaches to second language teaching.
Before we go further, let us take a moment to reflect on the differencesbetween natural and instructional language learning settings. We will then lookat transcripts from two classrooms and try to understand what principles guidethe teacher in each case.
2.2. Natural and instructional settings
Natural acquisition contexts should be understood as those in which thelearner is exposed to the language at work or in social interaction or, if thelearner is a child, in a school situation where most of the other children arenative speakers of the target language and where the instruction is directedtoward native speakers rather than toward learners of the language.
The traditional instruction environment is one where the language isbeing taught to a group of second or foreign language learners. In this case,the focus is on the language itself, rather than on information which iscarried by the language. The teacher’s goal is to see to it that students learnthe vocabulary and grammatical rules of the target language. The goal oflearners in such courses is often to pass an examination rather than to use thelanguage for daily communicative interaction.
Communicative instruction environments also involve learners whose goalis learning the language itself, but the style of instruction places theemphasis on interaction, conversation, and language use, rather than onlearning about the language. The topics which are discussed in the communicativeinstruction environment are often topics of general interest to the learner,for example, how to reply to a classified advertisement from a newspaper.Alternatively, the focus of a lesson may be on the subject matter, such as historyor mathematics, which students are learning through the medium of the secondlanguage. In these classes, the focus may occasionally be on language itself,but the emphasis is on using the language rather than on talking about it. Thelanguage which teachers use for teaching is not selected on the basis ofteaching a specific feature of the language, but on teaching learners to usethe language in a variety of contexts. Students’ success in these courses isoften measured in terms of their ability to ‘get things done’ in the secondlanguage, rather than on their accuracy in using certain grammatical features.
In the chart below, mark a plus (+) if the characteristic in theleft-hand column is typical of the learning environment in the three remainingcolumns. Mark a minus (-) if it is not something you usually find in thatcontext. Write ‘?’ if you are not sure.
Table 1: Comparison of natural and instructional settingsCharacteristics Natural acquisition Traditional instruction Communicative instruction error correction learning one thing at a time ample time available for learning high ratio of native speakers to learners variety of language and discourse types pressure to speak access to modified input
As you look at the pattern of + and — signs you have placed in the chart,you will probably find it matches the following descriptions.
In natural acquisition settings
— Learnersare rarely corrected. If their interlocutors can understand what they aresaying, they do not remark on the correctness of the learners’ speech. Theywould probably feel it was rude to do so.
— Language is not structured step by step. In communicative interactions,the learner will be exposed to a wide variety of vocabulary and structures.
— The learner is surrounded by the language for many hours each day. Someof it is addressed to the learner; much of it is simply ‘overheard’.
— The learner encounters a number of different people who use the targetlanguage proficiently.
— The learner observes or participates in many different types oflanguage events: brief greetings, commercial transactions, exchanges of information,arguments, instructions at school or in the workplace.
— Learners must often use their limited second language ability torespond to questions or get information. In these situations, the emphasis ison getting meaning across clearly, and more proficient speakers tend to betollerant of errors that do not interfere with meaning.
— Modified input is available in many one-on-one conversations. In situationswhere many native speakers are involved in the conversation, however, thelearner often has difficulty getting access to language he or she canunderstand.
Learners in traditional instruction
These differ from natural learners in that:
— Errors are frequently corrected. Accuracy tends to be given priorityover meaningful interaction.
— Input is structurally simplified and sequenced. Linguistic items arepresented and practised in isolation, one item at a time.
— There is limited time for learning (usually only a few hours a week).
— There is a small ratio of native speakers to non-native speakers. Theteacher is often the only native or proficient speaker the student comes incontact with.
— Students experience a limited range of language discourse types (oftena chain of ‘Teacher asks a question/Student answers/Teacher evaluatesresponse’).
— Students often feel great pressure to speak or write the secondlanguage and to do so correctly from the very beginning.
— When teachers use the target language to give instructions or in otherclassroom management events, they often modify their language in order toensure comprehension and compliance.
Not all language classrooms are alike. The conditions for learning differin terms of the physical environment, the age and motivation of the students,the amount of rime available for learning, and many other variables. Classroomsalso differ in terms of the principles which guide teachers in their languageteaching methods and techniques. The design of communicative language teachingprograms has sought to replace some of the characteristics of traditionalinstruction with those more typical of natural acquisition contexts.
Communicative language teaching classrooms
Thus, in communicative language teaching classrooms we may find the followingcharacteristics:
— There is a limited amount of error correction, and meaning isemphasized over form.
— Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextualcues, props, and gestures, rather than through structural grading (the presentationof one grammatical item at a time, in a sequence of ‘simple’ to ‘complex’).
— Learners usually have only limited time for learning. Sometimes, however,subject-matter courses taught through the second language can add time forlanguage learning.
— Contact with proficient or native speakers of the language is limited.As
with traditional instruction, it is often only the teacher who is aproficient speaker. In communicative classrooms, learners have considerableexposure to the second language speech of other learners. This naturallycontains errors which would not be heard in an environment where one’sinterlocutors are native speakers.
— A variety of discourse types are introduced through stories, roleplaying, the use of ‘real-life’ materials such as newspapers and televisionbroadcasts, and field trips.
— There is little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy, andthere is often a greater emphasis on comprehension than on production in theearly stages of learning.
— Modified input is a defining feature of this approach to instruction.The teacher in these classes makes every effort to speak to students in a levelof language they can understand. In addition, other students speak a simplifiedlanguage.
3.2 Classroom comparisons
In this activity we are going to look at transcripts from two classrooms,one using a traditional audiolingual, structure-based approach to teaching, andthe other a communicative approach. Audiolingualteaching is based on thebehaviourist theory of learning which places emphasis on forming habits andpractising grammatical structures in isolation. The communicative approach, incontrast, is based on innatist and interactionist theories of language learningand emphasizes the communication of meaning. Grammatical forms are only focusedon in order to clarify meaning. The theory is that learners can and must do thegrammatical development on their own.
With each transcript, there is a little grid for you to check off whethercertain things are happening in the interaction, from the point of view of theteacher and of the students. Before you begin reading the transcripts, studythe following definitions of the categories used in the grids:
1 Errors
Are there errors in the language of either the teacher or the students?
2 Error correction
When grammatical errors are made, are they corrected? By whom?
3 Genuine questions
Do teachers and students ask questions to which they don’t know theanswer in advance?
4 Display questions
Do teachers and students ask questions they know the answers to so thatlearners can display knowledge (or the lack of it)?
5 Negotiation of meaning
Do the teachers and students work to understand what the other speakersare saying? What efforts are made by teacher? By the students?
T eacner/student interactions
In the following excerpts, T represents the teacher; S represents astudent.