Syntax and semantics of verbals in English

Contents:
I. Introduction
1.1. Generalcharacteristics of the work
1.2. Definition of the term «Verbals»
II. Main Part
Chapter 1Grammatical overview of English verbals
2.1.1. Generalcharacteristics of English verbals
2.1.2. The Infinitive
2.1.3. Generalcharacteristics of Participles
2.1.4. The Gerund
Chapter 2 Syntax andSemantics of English Verbals
2.2.1. The functions ofthe Infinitive in the sentence
2.2.2. Infinitiveconstructions
2.2.3. Syntax and semantics ofparticiples
2.2.4 Predicative constructionswith the participles
2.2.5. Syntactical role ofthe Gerund
2.2.6. Constructions withthe Gerund
2.2.7. Control exerciseson verbals using
III. CONCLUSION
IV.Bibliography

I.Introduction
 
1.1 Generalcharacteristics of the work
The theme of my qualification work sounds as following:“Syntax and Semantics of Verbals in English”. This qualification work can becharacterized by the following:
2. Actuality of the theme.
Verbals are the forms of the verb intermediary in many oftheir lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual partsof speech. The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the principalspheres of the part-of-speech characterisation, i.e. in their meaning,structural marking, combinability, and syntactic functions. The processualmeaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbialinterpretation: they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances andproperties. They are formed by special morphemic elements which do not expresseither grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories).They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (performingnon-verbal functions in the sentence), and they can be combined withnon-processual lexemes like verbs (performing verbal functions in thesentence). This is the very problem of the verbals in English grammar. So,standing on such ground, I consider that this problem is actual enough to beinvestigated.
3. The tasks and aims of the work.
1. The first task of my work is togive definition to term “verbals”.
2. The second task is to characterizeeach type of verbals from grammatical point of view.
3. The aim of third is to describesyntactical functions of each verbal.
4. The last task is to describeconstructions with this verbals and their semantic meaning.
4. The novelty of the work.
I consider that the novelty of thework is revealed in new materials of the linguists which were published in theInternet. One more novelty is that I will include in this work some controlexercises on verbals using, which I had worked out and approbated during mypedagogical practice.
5. Practical significance of thework.
In my opinion the practicalsignificance of my work is hard to be overvalued. This work reflects moderntrends in linguistics and I hope it would serve as a good manual for those whowants to master modern English language. Also this work can be used by teachersof English language for teaching English grammar.
6. Ways of scientific investigationused within the work.
The main method for compiling ourwork is the method of comparative analysis, translation method and the methodof statistical research.
7. Fields of amplification.
The present work might find a goodway of implying in the following spheres:
1. In High Schools andscientific circles of linguistic kind it can be successfully used by teachersand philologists as modern material for writing research works dealing withEnglish verbals.
2. It can be used by teachers ofschools, lyceums and colleges by teachers of English as a practical manual forteaching English grammar.
3. It can be useful for everyone whowants to enlarge his/her knowledge in English.
8. Linguists worked with the theme.
As the base for my qualification workI used the works of such world-known linguists as V. Kaushanskaya,B.I.Rogovskaya, B.A.Ilyish, Gordon E.M., O.Jespersen and others [1].
9. Content of the work.
The present qualification workconsists of four parts: introduction, the main part, conclusion andbibliography. It also includes the appendix where some interesting Internetmaterials, tables, schemes were gathered. Within the introduction part, whichincludes two items we gave the brief description of my qualification work (thefirst item) and gave general notion of the term “Verbals”. The main part of ourqualification work includes several items. There I discussed such problems asmain features of English verbals, their syntactic functions, described theirrole sentence, and semantical meanings of constructions with verbals. In theconclusion to my qualification work I tried to draw some results from thescientific investigations made within the main part of my qualification work.In bibliography part I mentioned more than 20 sources of which were used whilecompiling the present work. It includes linguistic books and articles dealingwith the theme, a number of used dictionaries and encyclopedias and also someinternet sources.
1.2 Definition of the Term“Verbals”
The words of everylanguage fall into classes which are called Parts of Speech. Each part ofspeech has characteristics of its own. The parts of speech differ from eachother in meaning, in form and in function.
One of the parts of speechis the Verb. According to content, the verb can be described as word denotingaction, the term “action”embracing the meaning of activity (to walk, to speak, to play, to study,process (to sleep, to wait, to live), state (to be, to like, to know), relation(to consist, to resemble, to lack) and the like. According to form, it can bedescribed as a word that has certain grammatical features that are not sharedby other parts of speech; they have the category of tense, aspect, voice. Accordingto the function, verb can be defined as a word making up the predicate of thesentence.
The English Verbs can bedivided into two main groups, according to the function they perform in thesentence – the finite forms and non-finite forms.[2]
The finite forms have thefunction of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicateforms.
The non-finite ornon-predicative forms can have various other functions. These forms are alsocalled the verbals.
The non-finite forms orthe verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verbs do not express person, numberor mood.[3] Therefore, they cannot beused as the predicate of a sentence. Like the finite forms of the verbs theverbals have tense and voice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differfrom those of the finite verb.
There are three verbals inEnglish: the participle, the gerund, and the infinitive. In Russian there arealso three non-finite forms of the verb, but they do not fully coincide withthose in the English language.
In English the verbalshave the following characteristic traits:
a)      They have a doublenature: nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of averb with those of an adjective; the gerund and the infinitive combine thecharacteristics of a verb with those of a known.
b)      The tensedistinctions of the verbals are not absolute like those of the finite verbs,but relative. The form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotesrefers to the present, past or future. It shows only whether the actionexpressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finiteverb or prior to it.[4]
In the sentence a verbalmay occur.
a)      singling (withoutaccompanying words)
Eg. She went away smiling.– Она ушла, улыбаясь.
Reading is out of question, I can’t fix my attention on books. – О чтении не может быть и речи, я не могусосредоточить свое внимание на книгах.
b)      in phrase (i.e.with one or several accompanying words – an object or an adverbial modifier tothe verbal). The phrases form syntactic units serving as one part of thesentence. A phrase should not be confused with a predicative construction.Between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relation as it does notinclude a noun or pronoun expressed by a verbal.
Eg. Not to disquiet hissister, he had said nothing to her of the matter. – Чтобы не тревожить сестру,он ничего не сказал ей об этом.
c)       in predicativeconstructions.
Eg. She heard him open thedoor and go out the yard. – Она услышала, как он открыл дверь и вышел во двор.
All the verbals can formpredicative constructions. They consist of two elements: a nominal (noun orpronoun) and a verbal (participle, gerund or infinitive). The verbal elementstands in predicate relation to the nominal element. That is to say it standsin the subject and the predicate of the sentence. It most cases predicativeconstructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence.
Eg. The sat down tosupper, Jerry still talking cheerfully. – Они сели ужинать; Джери продолжалвесело разговаривать.
“Jerry still talkingcheerfully” is a predicate relation to the noun Jerry, which denotes the doerof the action expressed by the participle.

II.Main Part
 
Chapter 1 GrammaticalOverview of English Verbals
 
2.1.1 GeneralCharacteristics of English Verbals
The verb has finite and non-finite forms, the latter beingalso called verbals. The verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verb, do notexpress person, number or mood. Therefore they cannot be used as the predicateof a sentence.
Like the finite forms of the verb the verbals have tense andvoice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ greatly from those ofthe finite verb.
There are three verbals in English: the participle, thegerund and the infinitive.
In Russian we also have three non-finite forms of the verb,but they do not fully coincide with those in the English language (причастие,деепричастие, инфинитив).
The characteristic traits of the verbals.
The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows:
1. Theyhave a double nature, nominal and verbal. The participle combines thecharacteristics of a verb with those of an adjective; the gerund and theinfinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun.
2. Thetense distinctions of the verbals are not absolute (like those of the finite verb), butrelative; the form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the presentpast or future; it shows onlywhether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the actionexpressed by the finite verb or prior to it.
3. All theverbals can form predicative constructions, i.e. constructions consisting oftwo elements, a nominal (noun or pronoun) and a verbal (participle, gerund orinfinitive); the verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominalelement, i.e. in a relation similar to that between the subject and thepredicate of the sentence. In most cases predicative constructions formsyntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence.
They sat down to supper, Manston still talking cheerfully. (Hardy)
Онисели ужинать; Мэнстон продолжал весело разговаривать.
Manston still talking cheerfully, is a predicativeconstruction with a participle: the participle talking stands in predicaterelation to the noun Manston, which denotes the doer of the action expressed bythe participle.
In the sentence a verbal may occur:
(a)     singly, i.e. without accompanying words.
She… went away smiling. (Dreiser)
Она… ушла, улыбаясь.
Reading is out of the question — I can’t fix my attention onbooks. (Collins)
Очтении не может быть и речи — я не могу сосредоточить свое внимание на книгах.
To decide is to act.
Решить — значит начать действовать.
(b)     in phrases, i.e. with one or several accompanyingwords (an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). The phrases formsyntactic units serving as one part of the sentence.
A phrase should not be confused with a predicativeconstruction: between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relationas it does not include a noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the actionexpressed by a verbal.
The windows of the drawing-room opened to a balconyoverlooking the garden. (Mansfield)
Окнагостиной выходили на балкон, с которого был виден сад.
She tried to tranquillize him by reading aloud. (Gaskell)
Онапыталась успокоить его тем, что читала ему вслух.
Not to disquiet his sister, he had said nothing to her of thematter. (Hardy)
Чтобыне встревожить сестру, он ничего не сказал ей об этом.
(c)     in predicative constructions.
My mistress being dead…, I had to look out for a new place.
(Ch. Bronte)
Таккак моя хозяйка умерла, мне пришлось искать другое место.
There is no mistake about his being a genius. (Shaw)
Не можетбыть никакого сомнения в том,что он — гений.
She heard him unbar the door and go out into the yard. (Hardy)
Онаслышала, как он отодвинул засов и вышел во двор.
2.1.2 TheInfinitive
The infinitive representing an action in its most generalform is often treated as an initial form of the verb[5],but from the point of view of some linguists[6] the infinitivedeveloped from the «Verbal noun,’ which in course of time becameverbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties. Thus inModern English the infinitive, like the participle and the gerund, has a doublenature, nominal and verbal.
1. The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested inits syntactic functions. The infinitive can be used:
(a)     as the subject of a sentence.
To go on like this was dangerous. (Galsworthy)
(b)     as a predicative.
Her plan was now to drive to Bath during the night. (Hardy)
(c)     as an object.
I have never learnt to read or write. (Collins)
2. The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:
(a)     the infinitive of transitive verbs can take a directobject.
He… began to feel some curiosity… (Eliot)
(b)     the infinitive can be modified by an adverb.
I cannot write so quickly.
(c) the infinitive has tense and aspect distinctions; theinfinitive of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions.
In Modern English the infinitive has the following forms: Active Passive Indefinite to write to be written Continuous to be writing
to be being written[7] Perfect to have written to have been written Perfect Continuous to have been writing
to have been being written[8]
The tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive.
Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of theinfinitive are not absolute but relative.
1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneouswith the action expressed by the finite verb, so it may refer to the present,past or future.
I am glad to meet you. (Dreiser)
I was glad to see Mr. Paul. (Ch. Bronte)
Mr. Forsyte will be very glad to see you. (Galsworthy)
2. The Continuous Infinitive also denotes an actionsimultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, but it is an action inprogress. Thus the continuous infinitive is not only a tense form, but also anaspect form, expressing both time relations and the manner in which the actionis presented.
They happened, at the moment, to be standing near a smallconservatory at the end of the garden. (Collins)
Вэтот момент они как раз стояли около небольшой оранжереи в конце сада.
3.      The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to theaction expressed by the finite verb.
»I’m glad to have seen you,” he said. (Dreiser)
«Ярад, что повидал вас», — сказал он.
An intimate friend is said to have dined with him that day. (Hardy)
Говорят,что в этот день у него обедал его близкий друг.
After such verbs as to mean, to expect, to intend, to hopeused in the Past Indefinite, the Perfect Infinitive shows that the hope orintention was not carried out.
I meant to have gone there.
Ясобирался пойти туда (но не пошел).
I meant to have given you five shillings this morning for aChristmas-box, Sam. I’ll give it you this afternoon, Sam. (Dickens)
Яхотел подарить вам пять шиллингов на рождество, Сэм; я подарю их вам сегодня,Сэм.
The same meaning can be conveyed by the Past Perfect of thefinite verb followed by the Indefinite Infinitive.
I had meant to go there.
He had meant to marry me. (Eliot)
Онимел намерение жениться на мне.
Some English grammarians prefer the latter construction.
Note. — The idea, however, is often expressed in thefollowing way: I meant to go there, but never did.
4.      The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an actionwhich lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb. It is notonly a tense form, but also an aspect form.
For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothingbut cold meat, cake and bread and jam. (Jerome)
Днейдесять мы, казалось, питались только холодным мясом, печеньем и хлебом свареньем.
The voice distinctions of the infinitive.
The infinitive of transitive verbs has special forms for theActive and the Passive Voice:
It is so glorious to love and to be loved… (Stone)
Такпрекрасно любить и быть любимым.
In sentences with the construction there is the infinitive ofsome verbs can be active or passive without any change in the meaning:
There’s no time to lose. (Dreiser)
There is no time to be lost. (Eliot)
There is nothing to fear (to be feared).
The use of the infinitive without the particle to (the bareinfinitive).
In Modern English the infinitive is chiefly used with theparticle to[9]. In Old English to was apreposition used with the infinitive in the dative case to indicate purpose (towritenne meant ‘in order to write’). Later on to was re-interpreted as theformal sign of the infinitive and came to be used not only to denote purposebut in other cases as well. Still there are cases when the so-called bareinfinitive (the infinitive without the particle to) is used.[10]They are as follows:
1.      After auxiliary verbs.
I don’t understand the meaning of this passage.
We shall go there at once.
2.      After modal verbs except the verb ought.
If one cannot have what one loves, one must love what one has(Wilson)
3. After verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, tosee, to feel etc.   
In a few minutes they heard him ascend the ladder to his ownroom. (Hardy)
Черезнесколько минут они услышали, что он поднимается но лестнице в свою комнату.
I never saw, you look so before. (Hardy)
Яникогда не видел, чтобы вы так хорошо выглядели.
I felt my heart jump. (Heym)
Япочувствовал, что у меня ёкнуло сердце.
The verb to be after the verb to feel is used with theparticle to: I felt this to be very true.
(Dickens) Я чувствовал, что это совершенноверно.
4.      After the verb to let.
Let us be the best friends in the world! (Dickens)
5.      After the verb “to make” in the meaning of ‘заставлять’ and the verb “to have”in the meaning of ‘заставлять, допускать, велеть’.
What makes you think so? (Carter)
Чтозаставляет вас так думать?
I… had them take my baggage. (Hemingway)
Я…велел им взять мой багаж.
The verb to have in the meaning of ‘допускать’ is chiefly used after the modalverbs will and would in negative sentences.
I will not have you call him Daniel any more. (Trollope)
Яне допущу, чтобы вы продолжали называть его Даниэлем.
1 would not have you think that I am selfish. (Trollope)
Яне допущу, чтобы вы считали меня эгоистом.
6.      After the verb to know when its meaning approachesthat of to see, to observe (the verb to know never has this meaning in thePresent Indefinite).
I have so often known a change of medicine work wonders. (Shaw)
Ятак часто замечала, что перемена лекарства творит чудеса.
In this case, however, the particle to is sometimes used:
I have never known her to weep before. (Cronin)
Яникогда, раньше не видел, чтобы она плакала.
After the verbs ‘to hear’, ‘to see’, ‘to make’ and ‘to know’in the Passive Voice the to-Infinitive is used.
He was heard to mention your name several times.
Слышали,как он несколько раз упомянул ваше имя.
They were seen to leave the house early in the morning.
Видели,что они рано утром вышли из дома.
The child was made to obey.
Ребенка заставили слушаться.
Sir Pitt Crawley was never known to give away a shilling orto do a good action.
Никтоникогда не видел, чтобы сэр Питт Кроули дал кому-нибудь шиллинг или сделалдоброе дело.
7.      After the verb to bid.
I bowed and waited, thinking she would bid me take a seat. (E. Bronte)
Япоклонился и подождал, думая, что она предложит мне сесть.
The verb to bid is obsolete and is not used in colloquialspeech.
8.      After the expressions had better, would rather, wouldsooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but.
You had better go to bed and leave the patient to me. (Shaw)
Выбы лучше легли спать и оставили пациента на моем попечении.
I would rather not speak upon the subject. (Hardy),
Ябы предпочел не говорить на эту тему.
I would sooner die here, .at your feet… than see youmarried to such a one as that. (Trollope)
Япредпочел бы умереть здесь, у ваших ног …, чем видеть вас замужем за такимчеловеком.
1 cannot but think so. (Trollope)
Яне могу не думать так.
There was nothing left for him to do but watch and wait.
Единственное,что ему оставалось, — это наблюдать и ждать.
She does nothing but make scenes from morning till night. (Shaw)
Онатолько и делает, что устраивает сцены с утра до ночи.
I looked long at that picture, and could not choose but look.(Ch. Bronte)
Ядолго смотрела на эту картину и не могла не смотреть на нее.
‘Had better’, ‘would rather’, ‘to do nothing but’ belong tocolloquial English, whereas cannot but and cannot choose but are characteristicof elevated style.
9.      In sentences of a special type (infinitive sentences)beginning with why.
Why not come and talk to her yourself? (Reade)
Почемубы нам самой не прийти поговорить с ней?
The particle to is often used without the infinitive if it iseasily understood from the context.
He and his three men could not defend Rollingen even if theywanted to. (Heym)
Они трое его солдат не могли бы оборонять Роллинген, даже если бы захотели.
The particle ‘to’ may be separated from the infinitive by anadverb; this is the so-called split infinitive. It is hardly ever used incolloquial English.
He was unable, however, to long keep silence. (Galsworthy)
Онбыл, однако, не в состоянии долго молчать.
2.1.3 General Characteristics of Participles
The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has averbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.[11]
There are two participles in English — Participle I andParticiple II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the PastParticiple.
These traditional terms are open to objection on the groundthat Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as ParticipleII need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a differencein tense, but chiefly a difference in voice.
Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing[12]to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:
(a)     If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing: to give —giving, to close — closing.
(b)     If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowelrendering a short stressed sound,the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing: to run — running, toforget — forgetting, to admit— admitting.
A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowelsound, stressed or unstressed: to expel—expelling, to travel — travelling.
(c)     The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying,tying.
A final у is not changed before adding the suffix -ing: tocomply — complying, to deny — denying.
The formation of Participle II.
According to the way in which the Past Indefinite andParticiple II are formed, verbs are divided into three groups: regular verbs,irregular verbs, and mixed verbs.
1. Regular verbs. They form the Past Indefinite andParticiple II by adding -ed to the stem of the verb, or only -d if the stem of theverb ends in -e.[13]
to want —wanted        
The pronunciation of -ed (-d) depends on the sound precedingit. It is pronounced:
[ıd] after t, d:
wanted [wɔntıd], landed[lændıd]
[d] after voiced consonants except d and after vowels:
opened [‘əupənd], played [pleıd];
[t] after voiceless consonants except t:
worked [wə:kt].
The following spelling rules should be observed:
(a) Final у is changed into i before the addition of -ed ifit is preceded by a consonant.
to carry — carried
у remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel.
to enjoy — enjoyed
(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a shortstressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled.
to stop —stopped
Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel.
to occur —- occurred
Final r is not doubled when preceded by a diphthong,
to appear — appeared
Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel,stressed or unstressed:
to compel — compelled
2. Irregular verbs. Here belong the following groups ofverbs:
(a)     verbs which change their root vowel.
to sing —sang — sung
(b)     verbs which change their root vowel and add -en forParticiple II.
to speak —spoke —spoken
(c)     verbs which change their root vowel and add -d or -t.
to sell —sold —sold
(d)     verbs which change their final -d into -t.
to send —sent —sent
 (e)    verbs which have the same form for the Infinitive,Past Indefinite and Participle II.
to put — put — put
(f)      verbs whose forms come from different stems.
to be — was, were — been
to go — went — gone
(g)     special irregular verbs.
to have — had — had
to make — made — made
to do —did —done
(h) defective (anomalous) verbs.
can — could
must
ought
may — might
will — would
shall — should
3. Mixed verbs, their Past Indefinite is of the regular type,and their Participle It is of the irregular type:
to show — showed — shown
As has already been stated, the participle has a verbal andan adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character ismanifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbialmodifier. (Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and havebecome adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc., complicated,distinguished, furnished, etc.
E.g. an interesting book, a charming girl, the alarming news;a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished apartment.)
I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (Du Marnier) (attribute)
Мнебыл отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше.
And then she turned to the title-page, and looked at the namewritten in the schoolboy hand. (Ch. Bronte) (attribute)
Затемона открыла книгу па титульном листе и посмотрела на имя, написанноеученическим почерком.
The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:
1.      Participle I of a transitive verb can take a directobject.
Opening the door, he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)
2.      Participle I and Participle II can be modified by anadverb.
Leaving the room hurriedly, he ran out. (Thackeray)
Deeply affected, Priam Farll rose and left the room.(Bennett)
3.      Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I oftransitive verbs has also voicedistinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms: Active Passive Indefinite writing being written Perfect having written having been written
The tense distinctions of the participle.
Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of theparticiple are not absolute but relative.
Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes anaction simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending onthe tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, one can’t help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, I couldn’t help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, you will roar withlaughter.
He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer. (Galsworthy)
Онсмотрел на ковер, ожидая ее ответа.
Me returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb.(Hardy)
Онвернулся в хижину, неся на руках новорожденного ягненка.
Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time. (Ch. Bronte)
Оставшисьодни, мы с Полиной некоторое время молчали.
Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referringto no particular time.
The last turning had brought them into the high-road leadingto Bath. (Hardy)
Послепоследнего поворота они вышли на дорогу, ведущую (которая вела) в Бат.
Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an actionprior to the action expressed by the finite verb.
Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief over his knees…,began to eat and drink. (Dickens)
МистерБамбл, разостлав платок на коленях…, стал есть и пить.
They were, indeed, old friends, having been at schooltogether. (Walpole)
Онии в самом деле были старыми друзьями, так как вместе учились в школе.
It should be noted that a prior action is not alwaysexpressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception andmotion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to turnand some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.
Turning down an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane,lie went up to a smith’s shop. (Hardy)
Свернувна темную улицу и войдя в еще более темный переулок, он подошел к кузнице.
Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of thestairs. (Hardy)
Услышавшаги внизу, он встал и вышел на лестницу.
Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an actionsimultaneous      with, and prior to the action expressed by the finite verb;the latter case is more frequent.
His sister’s eyes fixed on him with a certain astonishment,obliged him at last to look at Fleur. (Galsworthy)
Взглядсестры, устремленный на него с некоторым недоумением, заставил его, наконец,взглянуть на Флер.
I was reminded of a portrait seen in a gallery. (Du Maurier)
Мневспомнился портрет, который я видела в картинной галерее.
In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to noparticular time.
He is a man loved and admired by everybody.
The voice distinctions of the participle.
Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denotethe active and the passive voice.
When writing letters lie does not like to be disturbed.
Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out.
Having written some letters he went to post them.
Having been written long ago the manuscript was illegible.
Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning, e.g. a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has nopassive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent[unction in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing intoa new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf.
2.1.4 The Gerund
The gerund developed from the verbal noun, which in course oftime became verbalized preserving at the same time its nominal character. Thegerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb, andcoincides in form with Participle I.[14]
As a natural result of its origin and development the gerundhas nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics of the gerundare as follows:
1.      The gerund can perform the function of subject,object and predicative.
They say smoking leads to meditation. (Collins) (SUBJECT)
I like making people happy. (Shaw) (OBJECT)
The duty of all progressive mankind is fighting for peace.(PREDICATIVE)
2.      The gerund can be preceded by a preposition.
I am very, very tired of rowing. (Hemingway)
3.      Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun inthe possessive case or by a possessive pronoun.
«I wonder at Jolyon’s allowing this engagement,» hesaid to Aunt Ann. (Galsworthy)
«Меняудивляет, что Джолион допустил эту помолвку», — сказал он тетушке Энн.
Is there any objection to my seeing her? (Galsworthy)
Кто-нибудьвозражает против того, чтобы я повидался с ней?
The verbal characteristics of the gerund are the same asthose of the participle:
1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object.
1 had now made a good progress in understanding and speakingtheir language. (Swift)
2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb.
She burst out crying bitterly. (Hardy)
3. The gerund has tense- distinctions; the gerund oftransitive verbs has also voice distinctions. The forms of the gerund in ModernEnglish are as follows: Active Passive Indefinite writing being written Perfect having written having been written
There is no gerund in the Russian language and the Englishgerund is rendered in Russian in different ways:[15]
(a)     by a noun.
Dancing had not begun yet… (Mansfield)
Танцыеще не начались.
(b)     by an infinitive.
She had tea with Cipriano before leaving. (Lawrence)
Передтем как уйти, она выпила чаю с Чиприано.
It is no good hiding our heads under our wings. (Galsworthy)
Бесполезнопрятать голову под крыло.
(c)     by “деепричастие”.
And without waiting for her answer he turned and left us. (Du Maurier)
И,не дожидаясь ее ответа, он повернулся и вышел.
On seeing Bella he stopped, beckoned her to him, and drew herarm through his. (Dickens)
УвидевБеллу, он остановился, подозвал ее к себе и взял под руку.
(d)     by a subordinate clause.
He regretted now having come. (Galsworthy)
Теперьон сожалел, что пришел.
It should be observed that though the active forms of thegerund may be rendered in different ways, the passive forms are nearly alwaysrendered by a clause.
As she contemplated the wide windows and imposing signs, shebecame conscious of being gazed upon. (Dreiser)
Когдаона рассматривала широкие витрины и внушительные вывески, она почувствовала,что на нее смотрят.
After having been informed of the conference in my lady’sroom he immediately decided on waiting to hear the news from Frizinghall. (Collins)
Послетого как ему сообщили о совещании в комнате миледи, он сразу решил подождать,чтобы узнать новости из Фризингхолла.
The tense distinctions of the gerund.
The tense distinctions of the gerund; like those of theparticiple, are not absolute but relative.
1. The Indefinite Gerund Active and Passive denotes an actionsimultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on thetense form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.
He can swim for any number of hours without tiring. (Hichens)
Онможет плыть много часов подряд, не уставая.
She walked on without turning her head. (Hardy)
Онашла, не поворачивая головы.
2. The Perfect Gerund denotes an action prior to that of thefinite verb.
She denies having spoken with him.
Онаотрицает, что говорила с ним.
He was ashamed of having shown even the slightest irritation.(Bennett)
Емубыло стыдно, что он проявил раздражение, хотя и очень слабое.
However, a prior action is not always expressed by a PerfectGerund; in some cases we find an Indefinite Gerund. This occurs after the verbsto remember, to excuse, to forgive, to thank and after the prepositions on(upon), after, and, without.
I don’t remember hearing the legend before. (Hardy)
Яне помню, чтобы я когда-нибудь слышала эту легенду.
You must excuse my not answering you before. (Collins)
Выдолжны извинить меня за то, что я не ответил вам раньше.
I thank you for restraining me just now. (Ch. Bronte)
Яблагодарен вам за то, что вы сейчас помогли мне сдержаться.
On leaving the house we directed our steps to the nearestshade… (Collins)
Выйдя из дома, мы направились в тень.
The Perfect Gerund may also be used after the above mentionedverbs and prepositions.
He did not remember having been in that room. (Galsworthy)
Онне помнил, чтобы когда-нибудь был в этой комнате.
The voice distinctions of the gerund.
The gerund of transitive verbs has special forms for theactive and the passive voice.
He liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. (Maugham)
Онне любил ни читать вслух, ни слушать чтение.
It is to be observed that after the verbs to want, to need,to deserve, to require and the adjective worth the gerund is used in the activeform, though it is passive in meaning.
«The slums want attending to, no doubt,» he said. (Galsworthy)
«Безсомнения, трущобами надо заняться», — сказал он.
He realized that his room needed painting.
Онпонял, что его комнату надо покрасить.
Differences Between Gerund and the Participle/Verbal Noun
The gerund and the participle.
In most cases the differentiation between the gerund and theparticiple does not present any difficulty.
Unlike the participle the gerund may be preceded by apreposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by apossessive pronoun; it can be used in the function of a subject, object, andpredicative. In the function of an attribute and of an adverbial modifier boththe gerund and the participle may be used, but the gerund in these functions isalways preceded by a preposition.
There are cases, however, when the differentiation betweenthe gerund and the participle presents some difficulty; for instance, it is notalways easy to distinguish between a gerund as part of a compound noun and aparticiple used as an attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if wehave a gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing denoted by thenoun does not perform the action expressed by the ing-form: e.g. a dancing-hall(a hall for dancing), a cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, awriting-table, etc.[16]
If we have a participle used as an attribute the persondenoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the mg-form: e.g. adancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child, etc.
However, there are cases which admit of two interpretations;for example a sewing machine may be understood in two ways: a machine forsewing and a machine which sews; a hunting dog may be a dog for hunting and adog that hunts.
The gerund and verbal noun.
The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun, whichhas the same suffix -ing. The main points of difference between the gerund andthe verbal noun are as follows:1. Like all the verbals the gerund has a double character— nominal and verbal. The verbal noun has only a nominal character. 2. The gerund is not used with an article.
The verbal noun may be used with an article.
The making of a new humanity cannot be the privilege of a handful of bureaucrats. (Fox)
I want you to give my hair a good brushing. (Hardy) 3. The gerund has no plural form.
The verbal noun may be used in the plural.
Our likings are regulated by our circumstances. (Ch. Bronte) 4.
The gerund of a transitive verb takes a direct object.
He received more and more letters, so many that he had given up reading them. (Priestley)
A verbal noun cannot take a direct object; it takes a prepositional object with the preposition of.
Meanwhile Gwendolen was rallying her nerves to the reading of the paper. (Eliot) 5.
The gerund may be modified by an adverb.
Drinking, even temperately, was a sin. (Dreiser)
The verbal noun may be modified by an adjective.
He (Tom) took a good scolding about clodding Sid. (Twain )
Chapter 2 Syntax and Semantics of English Verbals
 
2.2.1 The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence
The infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions.A single infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an infinitivephrase, i.e. an infinitive with one or several accompanying words.
The infinitive as a subject.
To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult. (Ch. Bronte)
Сомневатьсяпри таких обстоятельствах — это почти означает нанести оскорбление.
То acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly, is the first duty ofthe artist. (Thurston)
Приобретатьзнания, и приобретать их непрерывно, — вот первый долг художника.
From these examples we can see that the infinitive as asubject can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause.
Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes thepredicate, cases when it follows the predicate are far more common; with theinfinitive in the latter position, the sentence opens with the introductory it,which serves as an introductory subject. The introductory it is not translatedinto Russian.[17]
It is useless to discuss the question. (Eliot)
Бесполезнообсуждать этот вопрос.
It was pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine)
Былоприятно снова вести машину.
The infinitive as a predicative.
My intention is to get into parliament. (Trollope)
Мояцель — пройти в парламент.
The infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative.
The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to find. (Dickens)
Жилищемиссис Бетти было нелегко найти.
The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.
(a)     With modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbsexpressing modality the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal modalpredicate.
We must not leave him by himself any longer. (Dickens)
The train was to leave at midnight. (Hemingway)
 (b)    With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or endof an action the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
Imprisonment began to tell upon him. (Dickens)
Before daylight it started to drizzle. (Hemingway)
The infinitive as an object.
Leila had learned to dance at boarding school. (Mansfield)
After the verbs to allow, to order, to ask, to beg, torequest, to implore, to teach, to instruct we often find two objects, one ofwhich is expressed by an infinitive.
After waiting some time, Mrs. Clements… ordered the cabmanto drive back to her lodgings. (Collins)
 He asked me to walk in. (Collins)
The infinitive used as an object can be preceded by theintroductory object it. The introductory object is not translated into Russian.
He found it utterly impossible to leave the spot. (Hardy)
Онсчитал совершенно невозможным покинуть это место.
The infinitive as part of a complex object.
I never saw you act this way before. (Dreiser)
Яникогда раньше не видел, чтобы вы так поступали.
The infinitive as an attribute.
The use of the infinitive as an attribute is far moreextensive in English than in Russian: in Russian it modifies only abstractnouns, whereas in English it modifies both abstract and class nouns, indefinitepronouns (somebody, something, anybody, anything, etc.), ordinal numerals andthe adjective last.
The infinitive as an attribute is rendered in Russian by aninfinitive (chiefly after abstract nouns), by a subordinate clause or by afinite verb serving as the predicate of a simple sentence (after ordinalnumerals and the adjective last).
I have not had time to examine this room yet. (Conan Doyle)
Уменя еще не было времени осмотреть эту комнату.
Bathsheba was not a woman… to suffer in silence. (Hardy)
Батшебабыла не такая женщина, которая стала бы страдать молча.
The infinitive used as an attribute often has a modalsignificance — it expresses an action thought of as obligatory or possible.
I’ve got my wife and little boy to look after. (Dreiser)
Уменя есть жена и ребенок, о которых я должен заботиться.
There must be a lot of things in this world to make you veryunhappy. (Thurston)
Вэтом мире, должно быть, много такого, что может сделать вас несчастным.
Tess was no insignificant creature to toy with and dismiss. (Hardy)
Тэссбыла не такое незначительное существо, с которым можно поиграть и бросить.
Sometimes the infinitive used as an attribute implies a moreor less prominent idea of purpose.
Here is a nice book to read before going to bed.
Воткнига, которую хорошо почитать перед сном.
Here is a charming little cottage to spend the summer in.
Воточаровательный коттедж, isкотором можно хорошо провести лето.
The infinitive as an adverbial modifier.
(a)     The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier ofpurpose.
Laws were not made to be broken, laws were made to staywithin. (Heym)
Законыбыли созданы не для того, чтобы их нарушать, а для того, чтобы им подчиняться.
The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of purpose can beintroduced by in order and so as.
Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. (Heym)
Иногдаотступают для того, чтобы вновь перейти в наступление.
 (b)    The infinitive canbe used as an adverbial modifier of result. This chiefly occurs afteradjectives modified by the adverbs enough and too.
His eyes were sharp enough to look after his own interest. (Heym)
Глазау него были достаточно зоркие, чтобы позаботиться о собственной выгоде.
The infinitive as an adverbial modifier of result is also tobe found in sentences of the following type:
He was so weak as to be unable to work.
Онбыл так слаб, что не мог работать.
As the above examples show the result expressed by theinfinitive is often negative.
(c)     The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier ofcomparison (manner); in most cases with an additional meaning of purpose.
In this function it is introduced by the conjunction ‘as if’or ‘as though’.
She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stophim… (Dickens)
Онанервно протянула руку к его губам, как будто хотела остановить его.
(d)     The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifierof attendant circumstances.
She was driven away, never to revisit this neighbourhood. (Ch. Bronte)
Онабыла вынуждена уехать и больше не вернулась в эти места.
I am sorry to have raised your expectations, Mr. Blake, onlyto disappoint them. (Collins)
Мнеочень жаль, что я пробудил в вас надежду, мистер Блейк, только для того, чтобызатем отнять ее.
Some grammarians maintain that in sentences of this type theinfinitive performs the function of an adverbial modifier of result(consequence).
The infinitive as parenthesis.
Well, to cut a long story short, they thought it would bemore economical to live at the villa. (Maugham)
Корочеговоря, они решили, что будет дешевле жить на вилле.
Не was rude, to say the least of it.
On былгруб, чтобы не сказать больше.
2.2.2Infinitive Сonstructions
In Modern English we find the following predicativeconstructions with the infinitive:
(1)     the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction;
(2)     the Subjective Infinitive Construction;
(3)     the or-to-Infinitive Construction.[18]
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
The Objective with the Infinitive is a construction in whichthe infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or apronoun in the objective case. In the sentence this construction has thefunction of a complex object.
In translating the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Constructioninto Russian we nearly always use a subordinate clause.
He’s a wonderful teacher and I’ve never seen him lose histemper or get angry about anything. (Wilson)
Онзамечательный учитель, и я никогда не видел, чтобы он вышел из себя илирассердился из-за чего-нибудь.
However, sometimes a sentence containing theObjective-with-he-Infinitive Construction is rendered by a simple sentence.
… the bombings at night made the old walls shake to theirfoundations. (Heym)
…от ночных бомбежек старые степы содрогались до самого основания (бомбежкизаставляли стены содрогаться).
1. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is usedafter verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to watch, tofeel, to observe, to notice, etc.
I haven’t heard anyone call me. (Wilde)
Яне слышал, ‘чтобы кто-нибудь меня звал.
I saw Brown enter the room. (Braine)
Явидел, как Браун вошел в комнату.
After verbs of sense perception only the IndefiniteInfinitive Active is used. If the meaning is passive we use Participle II.
I saw the fire slowly conquered. (Collins) Я видел как пожар постепенно потушили.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active isused.
He saw Fleur coming. (Galsworthy)
The verb to see is followed by a clause and not by theObjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction when it is not really a verb ofsense perception, i.e. when it means ‘to understand’.
I saw that he did not realize the danger.
Явидел (понимал), что он не сознает опасности.
After the verbs to see and to notice theObjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is not used with the verb to be; asubordinate clause is used in such cases.
I saw that he was pale.
When the verb to hear is not a verb of sense perception, i.e.when it means ‘to learn’, ‘to be told’, a clause or a gerund (and not theObjective-with-the-Infinitive) is used.
I hear that he left for the South (of his having left for theSouth).
Яслышал (мне сказали), что он уехал на юг.
2. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is usedafter verbs denoting mental activity, such as to know, to think, to consider,to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel, to trust, etc.
After verbs of mental activity in theObjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction the verb to be is generally used.(This restriction does not apply to the verb to expect.) The use of thisconstruction after most verbs of mental activity is more characteristic ofliterary than of colloquial style.
I know you to be the most honest, spotless creature that everlived. (Hardy)
Язнаю, что вы самое честное и безупречное существо из всех, когда-либо живших насвете.
I believe him to have no conscience at all. (Hardy)
Ясчитаю, что у него совершенно нет совести.
After verbs of mental activity the Perfect Infinitive is usedbut seldom.
The doctor found his heart to have stopped two hours before. (Hardy)
Докторустановил, что его сердце перестало биться два часа тому назад.
Note, — With the verbs to think, to consider, to find thesame idea can be expressed without an infinitive.
Boldwood thought her beautiful. (Hardy)
She found the subject rather interesting (Dickens)
You consider yourself an impressive person, eh? (Shaw)
3.      The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction isused after verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.
The surgeon pronounced the wound to be a slight one.
Врачсказал, что рана легкая.
She declared him to be the most disobedient child inexistence.
Оназаявила, что это самый непослушный ребенок на свете.
4.      The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction isused after verbs denoting wish and intention: ‘to want’, ‘to wish’, ‘to desire’,‘to mean’, ‘to intend’, ‘to choose’ (in the meaning of ‘хотеть’).
I want you to come and dine with me. (Dickens)
Яхочу, чтобы вы пришли пообедать со мной.
I particularly wished those books to be returned to-night. (Dickens)
Яочень хотел, чтобы эти книги были возвращены сегодня.
She desired me to follow her upstairs. (Ch. Bronte)
Онавелела, чтобы я пошла за ней наверх.
5.      The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction isused after verbs and expression denoting feeling and emotion: ‘to like’, ‘todislike’, ‘to love’, ‘to hate’, ‘cannot bear’, etc.
I dislike you to talk like that.
Яне люблю, когда вы так говорите.
I hate him to be flogged. (E. Bronte)
Ятерпеть не могу, когда его бьют.
I cannot bear you to speak of that. (Eliot)
Яне могу выносить, когда вы говорите об этом.
6.      The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction isused after verbs denoting order and permission: to order, to allow, to suffer,to have, etc.
Here we find the Objective with the Infinitive only if theobject is expressed by a noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when theinfinitive is passive. This restriction does not apply to the verbs to sufferand to have.
Mr. Merdle ordered his carriage to be ready early in themorning. (Dickens)
МистерМердль приказал, чтобы экипаж был готов рано утром.
She… had never allowed the name of John Gordon to pass herlips. (Trollope)
 Онаникогда не позволяла себе произносить имя Джона Гордона.
Не ordered the boy to be put to bed. The teacher ordered the room to beaired.
After such verbs as «to order» and «toallow» the Infinitive in the Active Voice can be used only when theseverbs are followed by an object denoting a person who is ordered or allowed todo something.
The dean allowed the secretary to change the time-table.
Here we find two direct objects and not theObjective-with-the-Infinitive Construction.
Such sentences as «the dean ordered to change thetime-table» are impossible in English whereas in Russian they are widelyused.
«Декан разрешилизменить расписание».
So when translating such sentences into English we use theobjective with the Infinitive Construction where the Infinitive is in thePassive Voice.
The dean allowed the time-table to be changed.
Mr. Dombey suffered Florence to play with Paul.
МистерДомби неохотно разрешил (позволил скрепя сердце) Флоренс играть с Полем.
She suffered Mr. Franklin to lead her back into the room. (Collins)
Онапозволила мистеру Франклину отвести себя обратно в комнату.
From these examples we see that the verb to suffer, whenfollowed by the Objective with the Infinitive, is rendered in affirmativesentences by ‘неохотно разрешить’, ‘позволить’ (скрепя сердце). In negative sentences it isrendered by ‘допускать’. The verb to havedenotes permission only in negative sentences; it is very close in meaning tothe verb to suffer and is translated in the same way.
7. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is usedafter verbs denoting compulsion: to make (in the meaning of ‘заставить’). to cause (in themeaning of ‘заставить’, ‘распорядиться’), to get (in the meaningof ‘добиться’), to have (in themeaning of ‘заставить; сказать чтобы’).
Light steps in the gravel made him turn his head. (London)
Легкиешаги по гравию заставили его повернуть голову.
The noise caused her to awake.
Отшума она проснулась (шум заставил ее проснуться).
Site caused a telegram to be sent to him. (Galsworthy)
Онараспорядилась, чтобы ему послали телеграмму.
8. Though the infinitive as a rule is not used with verbs requiringprepositions, the Objective with the Infinitive is widely used with thepreposition ‘for’.
Occasionally it occurs with the preposition on or upon (afterthe verb to rely).
I rely on you to come in time.
Ярассчитываю, что вы придете вовремя.
I rely upon you not to go over to the opposition. (Dickens)
Ярассчитываю, что вы не перейдете на сторону противника.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally calledthe Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which theinfinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronounin the nominative case.
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does notserve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the functionof the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)
Говорят,что Эдит похожа на меня.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with thefollowing groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:
1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear,etc.
Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh heartily. (Dickens)
Слышнобыло, как смеется Боб Сойер.
The rider was seen to disappear in the distance.
Виднобыло, как всадник скрылся вдали.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active isused.
Tess’s father was heard approaching at that moment. (Hardy)
Вэтот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Тэсс.
2.      With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, toconsider, to knew, to expect, to believe, to suppose.
He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser)
Егосчитали честным и добрым человеком.
My father… was considered by many to be a great man. (Gow and D’Usseau)
Многиесчитали моего отца незаурядным человеком.
3.      With the verb to make.
Little Abraham was aroused… and made to put on his clothes… (Hardy)
Маленького Эбрахамаразбудили и заставили одеться.
4.      With Verbs to say and to report.
The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes and golden hair,which is said to be the mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)
Богинаделили Ирэн темно-карими глазами и золотистыми волосами, что, как говорят,является признаком слабости характера.
From these examples we can see that in translating sentencescontaining the Subjective Infinitive Construction after verbs in the PassiveVoice a complex sentence is mostly used: its principal clause is of the typewhich in Russian syntax is called ‘indefinite personal’ (неопределенно-личное предложение).
After verbs in the Passive Voice the SubjectiveInfinitive-Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquialstyle, except with the verbs to suppose, to expect, to make; with these verbsthe Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquiallanguage.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with theword-groups to be likely, to be sure, and to be certain.
The parish is not likely to quarrel with him for the right tokeep the child. (Eliot)
Приходвряд ли будет оспаривать у него право содержать этого ребенка.
Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by a simplesentence with a modal word. Note the difference between:
He is sure to come.
Он обязательно придет.
He is sure of coming.
Онуверен, что он придет.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with thefollowing pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen and to chance(the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.
They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. (Hardy)
Они,казалось (по-видимому), уже совершенно забыли его.
Her eyes appeared always to gaze beyond, and far beyond. (E. Bronte)
Ееглаза, казалось, всегда были устремлены куда-то далеко-далеко.
Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of the difference in their years,appeared to be a fit mate for him at this time. (Dreiser)
Несмотряна разницу в возрасте, миссис Каупервуд в этот период его жизни, по-видимому(казалось), была для, него подходящей женой.
The infinitive in sentences with the Subjective InfinitiveConstruction cannot refer to a future action except with verbs and word-groupswhose meaning allows of it: to expect, to be sure (certain), to be likely.
We are sure to come at the heart of the matter. (Dickens)
Мыобязательно доберемся до сути дела.
Не is expected to give us an answer to-morrow.
Ожидают,что он даст нам ответ завтра.
The for-to-Infiriitive Construction.
The for-to-lnfinitive Construction is a construction in whichthe infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by thepreposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinateclause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in thesentence. It can be:
1.      Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told wouldbe treason. (Wilson)
Еслибы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали, это было быпредательством.
I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so muchmoney this way. (Dreiser)
Ячасто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.
2.      Predicative.
That was for him to find out. (Eliot)
Выяснитьэто должен был он.
3.      Complex object.
Me waited for her to speak. (Hardy)
Онждал, когда она заговорит.
He asked for the papers to be- brought.
Он попросил принести бумаги.
I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in all heundertakes. (Dickens)
Мнеочень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он берется.
4.      Attribute.
The best thing for you to do is to bide here with your load.I’ll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)
Самоелучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.
There was really nothing for him to do but what he had done. (Dreiser)
Емудействительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он сделал(единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он сделал).
5. Adverbial modifier:
(a)     of purpose.
Here’s the thermometer: they’ve left it for the doctor to seeinstead of shaking it down. (Shaw)
Воттермометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть температуру.
Не stepped aside for me to pass. (Du Marnier)
Онотошел в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.
(b)     of result.
The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptationfor me to resist. (Collins)
Удовольствиесопровождать вас было так велико, что я не мог ему противиться.
But he had consented, and it was too late for him now torecede. (Trollope)
Ноон уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.
With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitiveis used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time thedoer of the action expressed by the infinitive.
1 am glad (pleased) to have got a ticket for the concert.
I am glad to have seen you. (Dreiser)
I am very sorry to have done a man wrong, particularly whenit can’t be undone. (Dickens)
In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to besorry.
I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.
2.2.3 Syntax and Semantics of Participles
Participle I
Participle I as an attribute.
Participle I Indefinite Active can be used as an attribute;in this function it corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие.
The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted.
Забор,окружающий сад, недавнопокрашен.
We admired the stars twinkling in the sky.
Мылюбовались звездами, мерцавшими на небе.
In some cases Participle I in the function of an attribute isrendered in Russian by a clause.
He came back and stood –resolute on the steps leading downto the street. (Cusack)
Онвернулся и стоял в нерешительности на лестнице, которая вела на улицу.
In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in preposition and inpostposition, i.e. it can precede the noun it modifies, and follow it.Participle I in pre-position hardly ever has accompanying words.
The gate-keeper surveyed the retreating vehicle. (Hardy)
Привратниксмотрел на удалявшийся экипаж.
Participle I in post-position as a rule has one or severalaccompanying words.
They dined outside upon the terrace facing Vesuvius. (Hichens)
Онипообедали на террасе, выходившей к Везувию.
Through the massive sunlight illuminating the hall at RobinHill, the July sunlight at five o’clock fell just where the broad staircaseturned. (Galsworthy)
Сквозьмассивную стеклянную крышу, освещавшую холл в Робин Хилле, лучи июльскогосолнца в пять часов падали как раз на поворот широкой лестницы.
Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as anattribute.
There was one line being laid out to within a few blocks ofhis new home… which interested him greatly. (Dreiser)
Егоочень интересовала линия, которую прокладывали в нескольких кварталах, от егонового дома.
Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is not usedattributively.
Attention should be paid to the fact that Participle I in thefunction of an attribute cannot express priority; therefore, it often happensthat when in Russian we have причастие in English we find a finite verb. Suchis the case with the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времениexpressing priority; it is rendered in English by an attributive clause.[19]
Татьяна,с великим равнодушием переносившая до того мгновения все превратности своейжизни, тут, однако, не вытерпела, прослезилась. (Тургенев)
Tatiana, who had until that moment borne all the ups and downs of herlife with great indifference, broke down, however, on this and burst intotears. ” (Translated by Domb)
Бульбаповел сыновей своих в светлицу, откуда проворно выбежали две красивые девки-прислужницы,прибиравшие комнату. (Гоголь)
Bulba bade his sons follow him into the little guest-chamber,whence two pretty serving-wenches, who bad been arranging the room, ran out.(Translated by Baskerville)
A clause, not a participle, is generally used in English evenwhen the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expresses an action simultaneous withthat of the finite verb.
Базаровзакурил трубку и подошел к ямщику, отпрягавшему лошадей. (Тургенев)
Bazarov lit his pipe and went up to the driver who was unharnessing the horses. (Translated by С. Garnett)
Матушка,знавшая наизусть все его обычаи…, всегда старалась засунуть несчастную книгуподальше. (Пушкин)
My mother, who knew all his habits, used to thrust theobnoxious volume into some remote hiding-place. (Translated ‘by J. and T.Litvinov)
Occasionally, however, in rendering the Russianдействительное причастие прошедшего времени, a participle is used in English.This is often the case when действительное причастие прошедшего времени refersto no particular time.
Заряуже занималась на небе, когда Соломин постучался в калитку высокого забора,окружавшего фабрику. (Тургенев)
Dawn was already beginning in the sky when Solomin knocked atthe gate in the high fence surrounding the factory. (Translated by С Garnett)
Потомон обратил внимание посетителей на висевшую над его головой картину, писаннуюмасляными красками. (Тургенев)
Then he drew the attention of his guests to a picture hangingabove his head, painted in oils. (‘Translated by C. Garnett)
In many cases an attribute expressed by Participle I isdetached, i.e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; theconnection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detachedattribute is usually separated by a comma.
It was the entrance to a large family vault, extending underthe north aisle. (Hardy)
Этобыл вход в большой фамильный склеп, простиравшийся под северным приделом храма.
Participle I as an adverbial modifier.
All the forms of Participle I may be used as an adverbialmodifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action simultaneous with theaction expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастиенесовершенного вида; Participle I Perfect expresses an action prior to the action expressed by the finiteverb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие совершенного вида. In somecases Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered inRussian by an adverbial clause.[20]
Participle I can be an adverbial modifier:
(a) of time.
Approaching Malta Street, Soho, Soames thought with wonder ofthose years in Brighton. (Galsworthy)
Приближаяськ Мальта Стрит в Сохо, Сомc судивлением думал о годах, проведенных в Брайтоне.
Having closed the drawing-room door on him, Isabel awaited alittle, absorbed in her own thoughts. (Collins)
Закрывза ним дверь гостиной, Изабелла подождала немного, погруженная в свои мысли.
As has already been stated, with some verbs of senseperception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter,«to seize, to look out, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefiniteis used even when priority is meant. In Russian деепричастие совершенного видаis used in such cases.
Anna… hearing his step, ran to the foot of the stairs tomeet him. (Eliot)
Анна…,услышав его шаги, побежала вниз по лестнице встретить его.
Arriving there the visitor found everything that should be foundat old manors. (Coppard)
Приехавтуда, гость нашел все то, что обычно находят в старых поместьях.
Entering her room that evening, Elfride found a packet for herself on thedressing-table. (Hardy)
Войдявечером в свою комнату, Элфрид нашла на туалетном столе сверток.
If the action expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active issimultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, the conjunction whenor while is often used.
…it was possible for Urquhart, when making his toilet, tosurvey with pride an original willow pattern tea service. (Cronin)
Экхартмог, пока он одевался, с гордостью любоваться чайным сервизом с настоящимкитайским рисунком.
While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face overthe stove. (London)
Дожидаясь, когда закипит вода, он наклонился над печкой.
Participle I Indefinite of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbialmodifier of time. Clauses of the type ‘Когда он был ребенком…,’ ‘Когда он былв Ленинграде…’ may be translated When a boy… When he was a boy…, When inLeningrad…, When he was in Leningrad. ..
(b) of cause.
Being of a more slender figure than Mr. Jarndyce, and havinga richer complexion, Mr. Skimpole looked younger. (Dickens)
Таккак мистер Скимпоул был стройнее мистера Джарндайса и так как цвет лица у негобыл лучше, он выглядел моложе.
Having been a little in that line myself, I understood it. (Shaw)
Таккак я сам раньше некоторое время работал в этой области, я понимал это.
(с) of manner and attendant circumstances. In this functionParticiple I Indefinite is mostly used.
She balanced herself on the curbstone and began to walkcarefully, setting heel to toe, heel to toe, and counting her steps. (Heym) (adverbial modifierof manner)
Онавстала на край тротуара и осторожно пошла вперед, переступая с пятки па кончикипальцев и считая свои шаги.
Gwendolyn was silent, again looking at her hands. (Eliot) (adverbial modifier of attendantcircumstances)
Гвендолинмолчала, разглядывая свои руки.
It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbialmodifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades. (Shaw)
Онпринимал участие в трех революциях, сражаясь па баррикадах.
(d) of comparison. In this function Participle I isintroduced by the conjunction as if or as though.
This was said as if thinking aloud. (Gaskell)
Этобыло сказано так, как будто он думал вслух.
… he was still on his guard, as though waiting for afurther question from me. (Du Marnier)
Онвсе еще был настороже, словно ожидая, что я задам ему еще один вопрос.
Participle I as a predicative.
In this function Participle I is used but seldom; it isusually rendered in Russian by an adjective.
The effect of her words was terrifying.
Впечатление,произведенное ее словами, было страшно.
The whole damned day had been humiliating. (Priestley)
Весьэтот ужасный день был унизительным.
Participle I as part of a complex object.
I saw that young man and his wife talking to you on thestairs. (Galsworthy)
Явидел, как этот молодой человек и его жена разговаривали с нами па лестнице.
Participle I as part of a compound verbal predicate.
Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the room below.(Hardy)
Вскореони услышали, что через комнату вниз прошел еще кто-то.
Participial phrase as parenthesis.
Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is not used in thisfunction.
Generally speaking, I don’t like boys. (Dickens)
Вообщеговоря, я не люблю мальчиков.
Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore looked like a manprematurely wasted and worn by the cares of a troubled life. (Collins)
Судяпо внешности, мистер Баумор был человек преждевременно состарившийся иизмученный тяготами жизни.
Participle II
Participle II as an attribute.
When used as an attribute Participle II of transitive verbscorresponds to the Russian страдательное причастие or действительное причастие of some verbs ending in -ся, е. g. abroken chair (сломанный стул), a broken cup (разбитая чашка), a newspaper published in Moscow (газета, издаваемая вМоскве), the problem discussed at the meeting (вопрос, обсуждавшийся на собрании).
Participle II, as well as Participle I, can be used inpreposition (without any accompanying words) and in post-position (with one ormore accompanying words).
He answered through the locked door. (Wells)
Онответил через закрытую дверь.
They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit upwith Chinese lamps. (Eliot)
Онисвернули в большую оранжерею, красиво освещенную китайскими фонариками.
Participle II of intransitive verbs which denote passing intoa new state, corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие or to an adjective. However, only ina few cases Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively,mostly Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to fall, tovanish, e. g. faded leaves (увядшие листья), a withered flower (засохший цветок), a retired colonel (отставной полковник), a fallen star (упавшая звезда), the vanished jewels(пропавшие драгоценности).
An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in.this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier:
The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted by theviolent ringing of the bell.         (Conan Doyle)
Экономкавышла из своей комнаты, привлеченная неистовым звоном колокольчика.
Accompanied by his father and Steger, he (Cowperwood)ascended to his new room. (Dreiser)
Сопровождаемыйотцом и Стеджером (в сопровождении отца и Стеджера), он поднялся в свою новуюкомнату.
Participle II as an adverbial modifier.
In this function Participle II is preceded by theconjunctions when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc. It is generallyrendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.
Participle II can be an adverbial modifier:
(a)     of time.
When guestioned Annie had implied vaguely… that she wasanxious about her brother-in-law. (Crohin)
КогдаЭнни стали расспрашивать, она дала понять…, что беспокоится о своем шурине.
(b)     of condition.
It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of thelaw which, if discovered, would bring them into the police court. (Cronin)
To,что он предлагал, было ужасно: это было нарушение закона, и, если бы онооткрылось, их отдали бы под суд.
(c)     of comparison.
As if torn with inner conflict and indecision, he cried. (Galsworthy)
Онплакал, словно его мучили внутренняя борьба и сомнения.
Mr. Kantwise shook his head as though lost in wonder and admiration. (Trollope)
МистерКэитуайуз покачал головой, словно переполненный чувством удивления ивосхищения.
(d) ofconcession.
… her spirit, though crushed, was not broken. (A. Bronte)
…хотя она и была подавлена, она не была сломлена.
Other grammarians view of the analysis of such word-groups aswhen questioned…, if discovered…, as if torn…, though crushed… isdifferent. They consider such word-groups to be elliptical clauses and notparticipial phrases.
Participle II as a predicative.
In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (Galsworthy)
НаВэла это произвело впечатление, помимо его воли.
The inner gate was locked, and the lodge closed. (Dickens)
Внутренниеворота были заперты, и помещение привратника закрыто.
Participle II as part of a complex object.
She has found me unaltered; but I have found her changed. (Collins)
Онанашла, что я ничуть не переменился, а я нашел, что она изменилась.
2.2.4Predicative constructions with the participle
In Modern English we find the following predicativeconstructions with the participle:
(1)     the Objective Participial Construction;
(2)     the Subjective Participial Construction;
(3)     the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction;
(4)     the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.[21]
The Objective Participial Construction.
The Objective Participial Construction is a construction inwhich the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or apronoun in the objective case.
In the next berth she could hear her stepmother breathingheavily. (Hardy)
Ейбыло слышно как на соседней койке тяжело дышит ее мачеха.
The participle breaking is in predicate relation to the noun“stepmother”, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.
In the Objective Participial Construction Participle IIndefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this constructionhas the function of a complex object. It usually corresponds to a subordinateobject clause in Russian.
The Objective Participial Construction may be found:
(a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, tohear, to feel, to find, etc.
Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering. (Dreiser)
Потомон выглянул из окна и увидел, что собираются тучи.
1 heard my wife coming… (Conan Doyle)
She could feel her hands trembling exceedingly. (Hardy)
She found him waiting for her at her journey’s end…(Dickens)
I saw the pony harnessed myself. (Collins)
 (b)    after some verbs of mental activity, such as to consider,to understand.
I consider myself engaged to Herr Klesmer. (Eliot)
Ясчитаю себя помолвленной с господином Клесмером.
(c)     after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish,to desire. In this case only Participle II is used.
The governor wants it done quick. (Bennett)
Отецхочет, чтобы это было сделано быстро.
(d)     after the verbs to have and to get; after these verbsonly Participle II is used.
In this case the Objective Participial Construction showsthat the action expressed by the participle is performed at the request of theperson denoted by the subject’ of the sentence. ‘Thus had the piano tuned’means ‘I made someone tune the piano’.
I had my coat altered.
Япеределала пальто (т. е. поручила кому-то переделать его).
He… had several bottles of wine brought… (Dreiser)
Ему… принесли несколько бутылок вина.
In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb todo is used:
Why don’t you have your hair waved? (Du Maurier)
Почемувы не завьетесь (не сделаете завивку)?
Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: itmay show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences theaction expressed by the participle.
The wounded man had his leg amputated.
Раненому ампутировали ногу.
The Subjective Participial Construction.
The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction inwhich the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate relation to a nounin the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject ofthe sentence.
In rendering this construction in Russian a complex sentenceis generally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntaxis called ‘indefinite personal’ (неопределенно-личное предложение).
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does notserve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the functionof the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
They were heard talking together… (Collins)
This construction is chiefly used after verbs of senseperception.
The horse was seen descending the hill. (Hardy)
Виднобыло, как лошадь спускалась с холма.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is aconstruction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun inthe common case or a pronoun in the nominative case; the noun or pronoun is notthe subject of the sentence.
The door and window of the vacant room being open, we looked in. (Dickens)
Таккак дверь и окно пустой комнаты были открыты, мы заглянули в нее.
In the Nominative Absolute Participial ConstructionParticiple I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction isgenerally rendered in Russian by means of an adverbial clause. It is used in thefunction of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:
(a)     of time.
The lamp having been lit, Mrs. Macallan produced her son’s letter. (Collins)
Когдазажгли лампу, миссис Макаллан достала письмо от сына.
This duty completed, he had three months’ leave. (Hardy)
Когдаэта работа была закончена, он получил трехмесячный отпуск.
(b)     of cause.
It being now pretty late, we took our candles and wentupstairs (Dickens)
Таккак было довольно поздно, мы взяли свечи и пошли наверх.
A knock had come to the door, and there being nobody else toanswer it, Clare, went out. (Hardy)
Послышалсястук в дверь, и, так как больше некому было открыть, Клэр вышел.
(с) of attendant circumstances. In this function theNominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of thesentence. In rendering it in Russian a coordinate clause or деепричастныйоборот is used.
He turned and went, we, as before, following him. (Jerome)
Онповернулся и вышел; как и прежде, мы последовали за ним.
One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almostpressed to the glass. (Dreiser)
Однаждыутром он стоял перед витриной, почти прижавшись носом к стеклу.
(d) of condition. In this function the Nominative AbsoluteParticipial Construction occurs but seldom and is almost exclusively used withthe participles permitting and failing.
Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall starttomorrow.
Еслипогода (время, обстоятельства) позволит, мы поедем завтра.
Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, nofurther hope of conciliation is left.[22]
Еслине удается достигнуть примирения, приходится применить силу; но если сила непомогает, не остается никакой надежды на примирение.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very oftenoccurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction incolloquial English is rare.
The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.
The Absolute Participial Construction may be introduced bythe preposition with and is then called the Prepositional Absolute ParticipialConstruction. It is in most cases used in the function of an adverbial modifierof attendant circumstances.
This construction is rendered in Russian by a coordinateclause or деепричастный оборот.
They were walking on again, with Hugh calmly drawing at hispipe. (Lindsay)
Ониснова шли вперед; Хью спокойно покуривал свою трубку.
The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixedon the ground. (Dickens)
Дочьсидела молча и неподвижно, опустив глаза в землю.
The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and theNominative Absolute Construction are separated from the rest of the sentence bya comma or a semicolon.
Grandcourt… rose and strolled out on the lawn, all the dogsfollowing him. (Eliot)
Mr. Tulkinghorn comes and goes pretty often; there beingestate business to do. (Dickens)
Then he started out, bag and overcoat in hand, to get his cupof coffee. (Maltz)
Prepositional Absolute Constructions are usually separatedfrom the rest of the sentence by a comma.
It was a balmy, radiant day, with the trees and grass shiningexceedingly green after the rain of the night before. (Dreiser)
He was there, writing busily at a distant table, with hisback towards the door. (Eliot)

2.2.5 Syntactical Role of the Gerund
The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. Asingle gerund occurs but seldom; in most cases we find a gerundial phrase or agerundial construction.[23]
1. The gerund as a subject.
Talking mends no holes, (proverb)
Разговорыне помогают в беде.
Waiting for the Professor was a lame excuse for doingnothing. (Heym)
To,что мы ждали профессора, было слабым оправданием тому, что мы ничего не делали.
The gerund used as a subject may follow the predicate; inthese cases the sentence opens with the introductory it (which serves as anintroductory subject) or with the construction there is.
It’s no use talking like that to me. (Shaw)
Бесполезноговорить со мной в таком тоне.
There was no mistaking the expression on her face. (Collins)
Выраженияее лица нельзя было не понять.
There is another view according to which it is the subjectand the rest of the sentence is the predicate.
2.      The gerund as a predicative.
The only remedy for such a headache as mine is going to bed. (Collins)
Единственноесредство от такой головной боли, как у меня, — это лечь спать.
3.      The gerund as part of a compound verbal predicate.
(a)     With verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality thegerund forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.
We intend going to Switzerland, and climbing Mount Blanc. (Ch. Bronte)
Мыхотим поехать в Швейцарию и подняться па Монблан.
Joseph could not help admiring the man. (Heym)
Джозефне мог не восхищаться этим человеком.
(b)     With verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, orthe end of an action, the gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspectpredicate.
She began sobbing and weeping. (Dickens)
In the night it started raining. (Hemingway)
Bathsheba continued walking. (Hardy)
Tom went on whitewashing. (Twain)
4.      The gerund as an object.
The gerund may be used as a direct object and as aprepositional indirect object.
I simply love riding. (Galsworthy) (direct object)
Япросто обожаю кататься верхом.
She enjoyed singing and playing to him. (London) (direct object )
Ейдоставляло удовольствие петь и играть для него.
Predicative constructions with the gerund form a complexobject as they consist of two distinct elements, nominal and verbal.
Perhaps you wouldn’t mind Richard’s coming in? (Dickens) (complex object)
Можетбыть, вы не будете возражать против того, чтобы вошел Ричард?
Aunt Augusta won’t quite approve of your being here. (Wilde) (prepositional complexobject)
ТетяАвгуста будет не очень довольна тем, что вы здесь.
5.      The gerund as an attribute. In this function thegerund is always preceded by a preposition.
Swithin protruded his pale round eyes with the effort ofhearing. (Galsworthy)
Суизиншироко открыл свои бесцветные круглые глаза, стараясь услышать разговор.
Не was born with the gift of winning hearts. (Gaskell)
Онродился с даром покорять сердца.
6.      The gerund as an adverbial modifier.
In this function the gerund is always preceded by apreposition. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time,manner, attendant circumstances, cause, condition, purpose and concession; themost common functions are those of adverbial modifiers of time, manner, andattendant circumstances.[24]
(a) As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund is precededby the prepositions after, before, on (upon), in or at.
After leaving her umbrella in the hall, she entered theliving room. (Cronin)
Оставив зонтик и передней, она вошла в гостиную.
Me was to have three days at home before going back to farm. (Galsworthy)
Ондолжен был пробыть три дня дома, прежде чем возвратиться на ферму.
On reaching Casterbridge he left the horse and trap at aninn. (Hardy)
Приехавв Кастербридж, он оставил лошадь и экипаж в гостинице.
In the function of an adverbial modifier of time the gerundsometimes competes with the participle.
George, on hearing the story, grinned. (Galsworthy)
Джордж,услышав эту историю, усмехнулся.
The four girls, hearing him speak in the hall, rushed out ofthe library. (Eliot)
Всечетыре девочки, услышав, что он говорит в передней, выбежали из библиотеки.
After reaching the second landing… I heard a sound ofquiet and regular breathing on my left-hand side. (Collins)
Дойдядо второй площадки лестницы,… я услышал с левой стороны спокойное и ровноедыхание.
Reaching the door of the room occupied by Cowperwood andAileen, she tapped lightly. (Dreiser)
Дойдядо двери комнаты, которую занимали Каупсрвуд и Эйлин, она тихонько постучала.
(b)     As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is usedwith the prepositions by or in.
She startled her father by bursting into tears. (Gaskell)
Онанапугала своего отца тем, что расплакалась.
The day was spent in packing. (Da Maurier)
Деньпрошел за упаковкой вещей.
(c)     As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstancesthe gerund is preceded by the preposition without.
She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful andstatuesque without knowing it. (Dreiser)
Этобыла женщина не блестящая, не энергичная, но она была очень спокойна ивеличественна, сама того не зная.
(d)     As an adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund ischiefly used with the preposition for.
… one side of the gallery was used for dancing. (Eliot)
…одна сторона галереи использовалась для танцев.
(e)     As an adverbial modifier of condition the gerund ispreceded by the preposition without.
He has no right to come bothering you and papa without beinginvited. (Shaw)
Онне имеет права приходить и беспокоить вас и отца, если его не приглашают.
(f)      As an adverbial modifier of cause the gerund is usedwith the prepositions for, for fear of, owing to.
I feel the better myself for having spent a good deal of mytime abroad. (Eliot)
Ячувствую себя лучше оттого, что долго прожил за границей.
I dared not attend the funeral for fear of making a fool ofmyself. (Coppard)
Яне смел присутствовать на похоронах, так как боялся поставить себя в глупоеположение.
(g) As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund ispreceded by the preposition in spite of.
In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.
The above examples show that the gerund preceded by one andthe same preposition may be used in different functions: with the prepositionwithout, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of attendantcircumstances and of condition; with the preposition in, it may perform thefunction of an adverbial modifier of time and of manner; with the prepositionfor, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose or of cause.
The Russian не + деепрнчастие may correspond to theEnglish without + Gerund or not + Participle. It usually corresponds to not +Participle if it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of cause.
Heзная адреса мисс Бетси, Давид не мог ей написать.
Not knowing Miss Betsey’s address, David could not write toher. (cause)
If не + деепричастие is used in the functionof adverbial modifiers of attendant circumstances and of condition, itgenerally corresponds to without + Gerund.
Давидуехал из Лондона, никому ничего не сказав.
David left London without telling anybody about it. (attendant circumstances)
Мальчикине могли уходить из Салем-Хауса, не спросив разрешения.
The boys could not leave Salem House without asking forpermission. (condition)
2.3.2 Constructions with the Gerund
Predicative constructions with the gerund.
Like all the verbals the gerund can form predicativeconstructions, i.e. constructions in which the verbal element expressed by thegerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element expressed by a noun orpronoun.
I don’t like your going off without any money. (Maltz)
Мнене нравится, что вы уходите без денег.
Here the gerund going off is in predicate relation to thepronoun your, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the gerund.
The nominal element of the construction can be expressed indifferent ways.
1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed:
(a)     by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessivepronoun.
His further consideration of the point was prevented byRichard’s coming back to us in an excited state. (Dickens)
Егодальнейшие размышления были прерваны тем, что вернулся Ричард в чрезвычайновозбужденном состоянии.
Do you mind my smoking? (Hardy)
Выничего не имеете против того, чтобы я курил?
(b)     by a noun in the common case.
I have a distinct recollection of Lady Chiltern alwaysgetting the good conduct prize! (Wilde)
Яотлично помню, что леди Чильтерн всегда получала награды за примерноеповедение.
Thus in Modern English there are two parallel constructionsof the type: Fancy David’s courting Emily and Fancy David courting Emily. Thesetwo constructions may be used indifferently, but sometimes there is a slightdifference in meaning: in the first example the action (the verbal element ofthe construction) is emphasized, whereas in the second the doer of the action(the nominal element of the construction) is emphasized.[25]
Occasionally examples are found where the nominal element ofthe construction is expressed by a pronoun in the objective case.
I hope you will forgive me disturbing you. (Du Maurier)
Надеюсь,вы простите меня за то, что я вас побеспокоил.
There are cases when the nominal element of the construction,though denoting a living being, cannot be expressed by a noun in the possessivecase, but only by a noun in the common case, namely when it consists of two ormore nouns or when it is a noun modified by an attribute in post-position.
I object to Mary and Jane going out on such a windy day. Hefelt no uneasiness now in the thought of the brother and) sister being alonetogether. (Eliot)
Еготеперь не смущала мысль о том, что брат и сестра остались вдвоем.
Did you ever hear of a man of sense rejecting such an offer?
Слышалили вы когда-нибудь, чтобы разумный человек отказался от такого предложения?
2. If the nominal element of the construction denotes alifeless thing, it is expressed by a noun in the common case (such nouns, as arule, are not used in the genitive case) or by a possessive pronoun.
I said something about my clock being slow. (Du Maurier)
Ясказала, что мои часы отстают.
Peggotty spoke of my room, and of its being ready for me. (Dickens)
Пеготтиговорила о моей комнате и о том, что она уже приготовлена для меня.
3. The nominal element of the construction can also beexpressed by a pronoun which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that,both, each, something.
I insist on both of them coming in time.
Ятребую, чтобы они оба пришли вовремя.
Again Michael… was conscious of something deep and privatestirring within himself. (Galsworthy)
Майклопять почувствовал, что в его душе шевельнулось что-то глубокое и затаенное.
Some grammarians recognize the existence of two separateconstructions: the gerundial construction (a construction whose nominal elementis expressed by a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun) and aconstruction with a half gerund (a construction whose nominal element isexpressed by a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the objective ease, or apronoun which has no case distinctions).
A gerundial construction is nearly always rendered in Russianby a subordinate clause, generally introduced by то, что; тем, что; как, etc.
His being a foreigner, an ex-enemy was bad enough. (Aldington)
To,что он был иностранец, бывший неприятель, было уже плохо.
Her thoughts were interrupted at last, by the door openinggently. (Reade)
Еемысли были наконец прерваны тем, что дверь тихонько открылась.
The use of the gerund.
In Modern English the gerund is widely used and oftencompetes with the infinitive.
In the following cases- only the gerund is used:
1. With the verbs and verbal phrases: to avoid, to burst out,to deny, to enjoy, to excuse, to fancy (in imperative sentences as anexclamation of surprise), to finish, to forgive, to give up, to go on, to keep(on), to leave off, to mind (in negative and interrogative sentences), topostpone, to put off, cannot help, and some others.
 He avoided looking at Sabina. (Wilson)
Онизбегал смотреть на Сабину.
…she burst out crying. (Collins)
Она расплакалась.
We all burst out laughing. (Braine)
Мы все рассмеялись.
She denied having been at the station that evening. (Gaskell)
Онаотрицала, что была в тот вечер на станции.
… he enjoyed thinking of her as his future wife. (Eliot)
…ему доставляло удовольствие думать о ней как о своей будущей жене.
Excuse my leaving you in the dark a moment. (Dickens)
Извините,что я па минуту оставлю вас в темноте.
Fancy finding you here at such аи hour! (Hardy)
Ядаже и представить себе не мог, что застану вас здесь в такое время!
Forgive my speaking plainly. (Hardy)
Простите,что я говорю так прямо.
2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with apreposition: to accuse of, to agree to, to approve of, to complain of, todepend on, to feel like, to insist on, to look -like, to object to, to persistin, to prevent from, to rely on, to speak of, to succeed in, to suspect of, tothank for, to think of, to give- up the idea of, to look forward to, not tolike the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and some others.
They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans. (Heym)
Меняобвиняют в том, что я имел дело с немцами.
It was clear now… that Abraham never had agreed to theirbeing married to-day. (Stone)
Теперьбыло ясно, что Авраам никогда не соглашался на то, чтобы они поженилисьсегодня.
You did not approve of my playing at roulette. (Eliot)
Выне одобряли того, что я играла в рулетку.
All the happiness of my life depends on your loving me. (Eliot)
Всесчастье моей жизни зависит от того, полюбите ли вы меня.
I don’t feel like going out. (Wilson)
Мнене хочется выходить,
3. With the following predicative word-groups (with orwithout a preposition): to be aware of, to be busy in, to be capable of, to befond of, to be guilty of, to be indignant at, to be pleased (displeased) at, 1to be proud of, to be sure of, to be surprised (astonished) at, to be worth(while), and some others.
Sir Pitt Crawley was not aware of Becky’s having marriedRawdon.
СэрПитт Кроули не знал, что Бекки вышла замуж за Родона.
I felt physically incapable of remaining still in any oneplace and morally incapable of speaking to any one human being. (Collins)
Ячувствовал, что я физически не в состоянии оставаться на одном месте и моральноне к состоянии говорить с кем бы то ни было.
1 am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde)
Яочень люблю, когда на меня смотрят.
You are really guilty of having connived with a Germanofficer to help his escape. (Heym)
Выдействительно виновны в том, что способствовали побегу немецкого офицераю
The gerund and the infinitive.
With a number of verbs and word-groups both the gerund andthe infinitive may be used. The most important of them are: to be afraid, tobegin, to cease, to continue, can (cannot) afford, to dread, to fear, toforget, to hate, to intend, to like (dislike), to neglect, to prefer, topropose, to remember, to recollect, to start, to stop.
The young man began turning over the pages of a book.(Priestley)
At length she began to speak softly. (Eliot)
She continued standing near the piano. (Eliot)
She continued to look at him… (Dickens)
It is sometimes possible to find a reason for the use of agiven form. With some verbs and word-groups, such as to be afraid, to forget,to hate, to like (dislike), to prefer the infinitive is mostly used withreference to a special occasion, the gerund being more appropriate to a generalstatement.
The child was not afraid of remaining alone, but he wasafraid to remain alone on such a stormy night.
Ребенок(вообще) не боялся оставаться один, но он боялся остаться один в такую бурнуюночь.
I was always afraid of losing his goodwill. (Liewellyn)
Явсегда боялся потерять его расположение.
Gwendolen answered rather pettishly-, and her mamma wasafraid to say more. (Eliot)
Гвендоленответила несколько раздраженно, и ее мать побоялась продолжать разговор.
Don’t forget shutting the windows when you leave home.
Heзабывайте закрывать окна, уходя из дому.
Don’t forget to shut the window when you leave home, it isvery windy to-day.
Heзабудьте закрыть окно, когда будете уходить из дому; сегодня очень ветрено.
I don’t like interrupting people.
Яне люблю отрывать людей от дела.
I don’t like to interrupt him, he seems very busy.
Мнене хочется мешать ему, он, кажется, очень занят.
With the verb to remember the infinitive usually refers tothe future, and the gerund to the past.[26]
I remember seeing the book in many bookshops.
Япомню, что видел эту книгу во многих магазинах.
Remember to buy the book.
Heзабудьте купить эту книгу.
With the verb to stop the infinitive and the gerund havedifferent syntactical functions.
The gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.
They stopped talking when he came in. (Galsworthy)
Когдаон вошел, они перестали говорить.
The infinitive has the function of an adverbial modifier ofpurpose.
She stopped to exchange a few words with a neighbour. (Dickens)
Онаостановилась, чтобы поболтать с соседкой.

2.2.7 Control exercises on verbals using
Test 1
a) Write down the ing-form (Gerund) of the following verbs.
1. spell- ____________________________________
2. discover- _________________________________
3. copy — ____________________________________
4. chase- ___________________________________
5. hug — _____________________________________
b) Complete the sentences using infinitive constructions.
1. Myfather taught me (dance / how)
2. Wehaven’t decided yet (put / the bed / where)
3. Shewas explaining (use / the gadget / how)
4. Iforgot to ask (pick him up / where)
5. Iwondered (address / him / whether) or not.
c) Fill in the gerund as the subject of the sentence.
1. (fly) toLondon has become rather cheap.
2. (smoke)is prohibited at petrol stations.
3. (swim)is good for your health.
4. (travel)is one of my hobbies.
5. (cycle)is impossible on this sandy ground.
d) Decide whether to use Infinitive (with/without to) orGerund.
1. Ienjoy go/to go/going on holiday.
2. Heused to live/living in the country.
3. She isused to live/living in the country.
4. I amtired of wait/to wait/waiting.
5. Ellenmade me laugh/to laugh/laughing.
Keys.
a)
1. spell — spelling
2. discover- discovering
3. copy — copying
4. chase — chasing
5. hug — hugging
b)
1. My fathertaught me how to dance.
2. Wehaven’t decided yet where to put the bed.
3. She wasexplaining how to use the gadget.
4. I forgotto ask where to pick him up.
5. Iwondered whether to address him or not.
c)
1. Flying toLondon has become rather cheap.
2. Smokingis prohibited at petrol stations.
3. Swimmingis good for your health.
4. Travellingis one of my hobbies.
5. Cyclingis impossible on this sandy ground.
d)
1. I enjoygoing on holiday.
2. He usedto live in the country.
3. She isused to living in the country.
4. I amtired of waiting.
5. Ellenmade me laugh.
Test 2
Gerund or Infinitive?
1. I remember _____ Simon at the Max Planck Institute.
a. meet
b. to meet
c. meeting
d. to meeting
2. Did you remember _____ the letter?
a. post
b. to post
c. posting
d. to posting
3. I’m not used _____ up this early.
a. get
b. to get
c. getting
d. to getting
4. I used _____ to the pub a lot.
a. go
b. to go
c. going
d. to going
5. I regret _____ Magda about my new girlfriend.
a. tell
b. to tell
c. telling
d. to telling
6. Mrs Jarmołowicz, I regret _____ you that your creditlimit has been exceeded.
a. inform
b. to inform
c. informing
d. to informing
7. Stop _____ this dreadful noise at once!
a. make
b. to make
c. making
d. to making
8. I wanted to stop _____ some pirate CDs, but we didn’t haveenough time.
a. to
b. to buy
c. buying
d. to buying
9. Look, it’s starting _____ .
a. rain
b. to rain
c. raining
d. to raining
10. I started _____ English when I was twenty-one.
a. learn
b. to learn
c. learning
d. to learning
Keys.
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. c
8. b
9. b
10. b/c
Test 3
1. Is there anything in that new magazine worth _____.
a) toread
b) reading
2. Although I was in a hurry, I stopped _____ to him.
a) totalk
b) talking
3. I really must stop ______.
a) tosmoke
b) smoking
4. Would you mind ______ the front door?
a) toclose
b) closing
5. You should remember ______ him. He’ll be at home.
a) tophone
b) phoning
6. Do you enjoy ______?
a) toteach
b) teaching
7. All parts of London seem ______ to different towns andepochs.
a) tobelong
b) belonging
8. Why have you stopped? Go on ______.
a) toread
b) reading
9. The teacher asked us some questions and went on ______ usabout the climate of England.
a) totell
b) telling
10. When we had finished ______ the waiter brought the bill.
a) to eat
b) eating
11. My elder brother went to college, and I hope ______ theretoo.
a) to go
b) going
12. My car needs a service badly, and Tom offered ______ mewith it.
a) tohelp
b) helping
13. Avoid ______ and you’ll feel better soon.
a) toovereat
b) overeating
14. I can’t help ______ about that awful accident.
a) tothink
b) thinking
15. The Brains want ______ Boston this week.
a) toleave for
b) leavingfor
16. I’ll always remember ______ you for the first time.
a) tomeet
b) meeting
17. I decided ______ my holiday in France.
a) tospend
b) spending
18. I enjoy ______ very much.
a) totravel
b) travelling
19. We might manage ______ a lot of interesting places there.
a) tovisit
b) visiting
20. I dislike ______ around in the car.
a) totour
b) touring
Keys:
1 b              6 b              11 a            16 b
2 a              7 a              12 a            17 b
3 b              8 b              13 b            18 b
4 b              9 a              14 b            19 a
5 a              10 b            15 a            20 b
Gerund and Preposition Exercise
Complete the sentences by using a preposition and the wordsin brackets. Remember that verbs should be put into the gerund form as theyfollow a preposition.
1. Stephendecided on chicken instead — (order/steak).
2. I’minterested — (watch/film) by Ken Loach.
3. Heapologised — (be/late).
4. Icertainly can’t blame you — (not/want) to come.
5. Magda’sthinking — (study/England).
6. We arereally very excited — (hike/Andes) this coming summer.
7. Simonisn’t really used — (walk/work).
8. Wethanked them — (drive/us/home) after the football game.
9. Couldyou please tell me who is responsible — (accept/applications)?
10. I’msure she has a good reason — (not/be/here).
Keys.
1. ofordering steak
2. inwatching a film
3. forbeing late
4. fornot wanting
5. about/ofstudying in England
6. abouthiking in the Andes
7. towalking to work
8. for drivingus home
9. foraccepting applications
10. fornot being here

III. CONCLUSION
In the present qualification work we attempted to investigatethe verbals, suchpart of speech formed from a verb that does not function as a verb. We chose the verbals asthe theme of our qualification work because we interested in it. We useddifferent kind of references to investigate the adjective. In other words, wementioned that we studied the main aspects of English verbals: grammatical characteristics,their syntactical role, their semantics, and rule of correct use of English verbals.
A verbal is a part of speech formed from a verb that does not function asa verb. Verbals are sometimes referred to as non-finite verbs, meaning they donot, as finite verbs do, agree in person, number, and tense with a subject.Verbals do not take a subject; however, they can take a direct object orindirect object, and can be modified like verbs. There are three types ofverbals: gerunds, participles, and infinitives.
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in itssimplest „stem“ form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, oradverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kindsof verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state ofbeing. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object,subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitiveis easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it hasin a sentence can sometimes be confusing. An Infinitive Phrase is a group ofwords consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) ornoun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirectobject(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive.
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often endsin -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other twokinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a stateof being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nounsor pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and pastparticiples. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en,-d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. Aparticipial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and themodifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the directobject(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or stateexpressed in the participle.
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The termverbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is basedon a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since agerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that anoun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement,and object of preposition. A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of agerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that functionas the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action orstate expressed in the gerund.
The present material can be used at the lessons of grammar,practical course of English language, lexicology, and speech practice in both:universities and English classes at schools. This paper can help to create theteaching aids, textbooks, etc. Teachers and students might use the results ofthe present work for the further investigations.

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