Expressive means and stylistic Devices

MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
GULISTAN STATE UNIVERSITY
The English and Literature Department
______________’s qualification work on speciality5220100, English philology on the theme:“Expressive Means and StylisticDevices”
Supervisor: ___________
Gulistan 2008

Contents
I. Introduction
1.1. About style
1.2. Expressive means andstylistic Devices
II. Main part
2.1. Lexical ExpressiveMeans and Stylistic Devices
2.2. International mixingof the stylistic aspect of words
2.3. Interaction ofdifferent types of lexical meaning
2.4. Interaction ofprimary dictionary and contextually imposed meaning
2.5. Stylistic DevicesBased on the Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning
2.6. Stylistic DevicesBased on the Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meanings
III. ConclusionIV. Bibliography

I. Introduction
Theme actuality. In order to improve the training and providebetter knowledge of foreign languages we have to accelerate the realization ofthe National Programmer of Personnel Training in the country. As in many otheraspects of life the situation changed in a language policy. That requirescreation of new textbooks, dictionaries, manuals. In order to fulfill thisgoals one must know every field of linguistics. In my opinion the theme of thework is very actual because there is not any manual which compare the lexicalstylistic devices of the Uzbek and the English language.
The aims and purposes of the work. Main goal of the work isto compare, analyze and find examples which belong to lexical stylistic device.
The scientific novelty of the work. The analyses of thelexical stylistic device of both languages have done in comparing the worksdone by Galperin I.R, Kukharenko.V.A, and Bobohonova L.T.
The practical value. The practical value of the research isthat the material and the results of the given qualification work can serve thematerial for theoretical courses of lexicology, stylistics, typology as wellas can be used for practical lessons in translations, home reading,conversational practice and current events.
Literature overview. The methodic base on the work became theworks of Galperin I.R., Kucharenko V.A., Bobohonova L.T, materials from Internet,different types of dictionaries,World Book Encyclopedia .
The structure of the work. The qualifications work consistsof Introduction, Main Part an conclusion, which are followed by the list ofthe literature used in the course of research.
1.1 About style
The word s t y l e is derived from the Latin word `s t y l o s`which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by theRomans for writing on wax tablets. Now the word `style` is used in so manysenses that it has become a breeding ground for ambiguity. The word is appliedto the teaching of how to write a composition; it is also used to reveal thecorrespondence between thought and expression; it frequently denotes anindividual manner of making use of language; it sometimes refers to moregeneral, abstract notions thus inevitably becoming vague and obscure, as, forexample, “Style is the man himself” (Buffon), “Style is depth” (Derbyshire);“Style is deviations” (Enkvist); “Style is choice” and the like.
All these ideas directly or indirectly bear on issues instylistics. Some of them become very useful by revealing the springs which makeour utterance emphatic, effective and goal-directed. It will therefore not comeamiss to quote certain interesting observations regarding style made bydifferent writers from different angles. Some of these observations are dressedup as epigrams or sententious maxims like the ones quoted above. Here some moreof them.
Style is a quality of language which communicates preciselyemotions or thoughts, or a system of emotions or thoughts, peculiar to theauthor”. (J Middleton Murry) “… a true idiosyncrasy of style is the result ofan author’s success in compelling language to conform to his mode ofexperience”. (J. Middleton Murry).
“Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation”.(Enkvist).
“Style is a selection of non-distinctive features oflanguage”. (L. Bloomfield).
“Style is simple synonymous with form or expression and hencea superfluous term”. (Benedetto Croce)[1].
“Style is essentially a citational process, a body offormulae, a memory (almost in the cybernetic sense of the word). A cultural andnot an expressive inheritance”. (Roland Barthes)[2].
Some linguists consider that the word `style` and the subjectof linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of themessage, i.e. its impact on the reader. Thus Michael Riffaterre writes that“Stylistics will be linguistics of the effects of the message, of the output ofthe act of communication, of its attention –compelling function”. This point ofview has clearly been reached under the influence of recent developments in thegeneral theory of information. Language being one of the means of communicationor, to be exact, the most important mans of communication, is regarded in the abovequotation from a pragmatic point of view. Stylistics in that case is regardedas a language science which deals with the results of the act of communication.
To a very considerable degree this is true. Stylistic musttake into consideration the “output of the act of communication”. Butstylistics must also investigate the ontological, i.e. natural, inherent, andfunctional peculiarities of the means of communication. Which may ensure theeffect sought?
Archibald A. Hill states that “A current definition of styleand stylistics is that structures, sequences, and patterns which extend, or mayextend, beyond the boundaries of individual sentences define style, and thatthe study of them is stylistics”
The truth of this approach to style and stylistics lies inthe fact that the author concentrates on such phenomena in language as presenta system, in other words, on facts which are not confined to individual choicesand patterns of choices (emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities.”[3]
This definition indirectly deals with the idiosyncrasiespeculiar to a given writer. Somehow it fails to embrace such phenomena in textstructure where the `individual` is reduced to the minimum or even done awaywith entirely (giving preferences to non-individualistic forms in usinglanguage means). However, this definition is acceptable when applied to theways men-of-letters use language when they seek to make it conform to theirimmediate aims and support. A somewhat broader view of style is expressed byWerner winter who maintains that “A style may be said to be characterized by apattern of recurrent selections from the inventory of optional features of alanguage. Various types of selection can be found; complete exclusion of anoptional element, obligatory inclusion of a feature optional else where,varying degrees of inclusion of a specific variant without complete eliminationof competing features.”[4]
The idea of taking various types of selection as criteria fordistinguishing styles seems to be a sound one. It places the whole problem on asolid foundation
Of objective criteria, namely, the interdependence ofoptional and obligatory features..
There is no point in quoting other definitions of style. Theyare too many and heterogeneous to fall under one more or less satisfactoryunified notion. Undoubtedly all these diversities in the understanding of theword `style` stem from its ambiguity. But still all these various definitionsleave an impression that by and large they all have something in common. All ofthem point to some integral significance, namely that style is a set ofcharacteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members ofone subclass from members of the same general class.4 *What are these sets ofcharacteristics typical of a writer or of a subclass of the literary languagewill be seen in the analysis of the language means of a given writer and of thesubclasses of the general literary standard.
1.2 Expressive means and stylistic Devices
All stylistic means of the English and Uzbek languages can bedivided into expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). “The expressivemeans of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word building, lexical,preseological or syntactical forms which exist in language as-a-system for thepurpose of logical and various dictionaries.
Among lexical EM we must mention words with emotive meanings,interjections, polysemantic words, vulgar words, slang etc. The fact thatpolysemantic words retain their primary and secondary meanings is of greatimportance for stylistics. It is quite easy to understand the meaning of thefollowing phrases; He grasped the main idea; a burning question; pity meltedher heart. The italicized words are used in their secondary transferreddictionary meanings. But the primary and secondary meanings are realizedsimultaneously. The expressiveness of these words becomes obvious when comparedwith neutral equivalents; He understood the main idea; an important question;pity softened her heart. This expressiveness exists in the vocabulary of theUzbek and any language. For example: Suv yuz gradus issiqlikda qaynaydi; gapqaynaydi. Ustaraniqayramoq. Ikki yoshni bir-biriga qayramoq. Dalalarda ishqaynaydi kimlar teradi, kimlar beda o`radi, kimlar shudgar qiladi.
In this short survey it is impossible to give a completeanalysis of all E.M. of the both language. My task was to show some lexical EMof the English and Uzbek languages.
According to Prof I.R. Galperin`s definition Stylistic Deviseis a conscious and intentional intensification of some type structural orsemantic property of a language unit promoted to a generalized status and thusbecoming a generative model.
SD must always have some function in the text, besides theybring some additional information. The conception that words possess severalmeanings gives rise to such SDS as metaphor, metonymy, irony, epithet andothers. Thus, a metaphor is a conscious and intentional intensification oftypical semantic properties of a word: “Oh, Rain”-said Mor. He enveloped her ina great embrace. (I. Murdoch). The dictionary meaning of the verb “envelope” is“to wrap up, coer on all sides”. The contextual meaning is “to embrace” Here wecan give example of the Uzbek: Imtixonda u sayrab ketdi. The dictionary meaningof the verb “sayramoq” is “qushlarning sayrashi, yoqimli yoki yoqimsiz ovozchiqarishi” The contextual meaning is” tinmasdan so`zladi, yaxshi javob berdi”.
The typical features of proverbs and sayings serve as thefoundation for an SD which is called epigram, i.e. brevity, rhythm and otherproperties of proverbs constitute a generative mo0del into which new content ispoured
A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (J. Keats)
Sweet is pleasure after pain (J. Dryden)
If youth knew, if age could (Tl. Estienne)
What the eye does not see, the stomach doesn’t get upset(J.K. Jerome).
O`zing tashna bo`lsang, obi juy etar
Ko`zing tashna bo`lsa, obro`y ketar (X.Dexlaviy)
Aytur so`zni ayt, aytmas so`zdan qayt. (A.Navoiy)
These phrases are not proverbs; they are the creations ofindividual writers and poets. When such phrases are used in the text theyaccumulate great emotive force and function. They acquire a generalized statusand thus easily become an SD while proverbs remain EM of the language.
The some may be said about syntax. The typical structuralfeatures of oral speech (violation of word order, omission of some parts of thesentence, repetition of certain words etc) may be intensified and promoted to ageneralized status. Such SDs as inversion, parallel constructions, chiasmus isthe result of these stylistic transformations.
It is important to know that the stylistic use of EM must notnecessarily lead to the formation of an SD. For example, repetition is widelyused in folk song and poetry and in oral speech to make our speech emotionaland expressive, but we can’t say that in such cases we use a SD.
When the weather is wet
We must not fret,-
When the weather is cold
We must not scold
When the weather is warm
We must not storm.
“Oltin edim, chuyan bo`ldim
Dono edim, somon bo`ldim
Qimmat edim, arzon bo`ldim
G`amga qolgan, ravshan bo`ldim.
Thus we may draw the conclusion that EM are the facts of thelanguage, while SDs are the property of the speech. They are the creation ofindividuals (writers and poets) and are based on the peculiarities of existingEM of the language. This is in short the difference between EM and SD.
While speaking about SD we must always remember: the force ofone and the same SD may be different. In some cases the emotive charge may bevery strong, in others it may be weak. It depends on the use of a SD in one andthe same function. Due to the overuse of the SD it may become hackneyed, triteand looses its freshness and brightness;
1. The best pens of the world
A sweet smile
Stly as a fox
Buloqning ko`zi
Tog`ning yon bag`ri
Oq oltin, zangori ekran
2. with his mousing walk
Buttoned strictness of his coat
O`ychan oqshomlar
Erning oppoq ko`rpasi
Solsovuldek yuzlar
In the first case we have trite SDs, in the second-fresh,genuine SD.
Speaking about SDs we must mention the cases when two or more EM or SD meet at one point, it one utterance. Such clusters of SDs are calledconvergence. “Together each SD adds its expressivity to that of the others. Ingeneral, the effects of these SDs converge into one especially striking emphasis”(M. Riffaterre) For example: When everyone had recovered George said; “She putin her thumb and pulled out a plum”. Then away we were into our mercilesshacking-hecking laughter again. (S.M.Maugham).
Mushtipar opalarimiz, fidoyi yanga va singillarymiztiriklikningtuganmas yumushlary deb o`n besh-yigirma yoshlaridayoq “Qush uyqu”,o`ttiz yoshlarida esa o`tin bo`lib qolmoqdalar…(Saodat jurnalidan)
In this Uzbek examples mushtipar, fidoyi, yumush, qush uyqu,o`tin is convergence.
In English examples we find the convergence of several SDs:decomposition of a proverb (to put one’s thumb into smth), a bring case of anonomatopoeia in the function of an epithet (Hacking-hecking), inversion(adverbial modifier stand before the subject).
“ … and heaved and heaved still unrestingly heaved the blacksea as if its vast tides were a conscience. Here the convergence comprisesrepetition, inversion and simile”.[5]

II. Main part
 
2.1 Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
Transferred meaning is the interrelation between two types ofthe lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual meaning alwaysdepends on the dictionary meaning. But when the deviation is very great that itven causes an unexpected turn in the logical meaning, we register a stylisticdevice. In other words we may say: when we witness two meanings of the wordrealized simultaneously we are confronted with a SD, where two meaningsinteract.
2.2 International mixing of the stylistic aspect ofwords
Heterogeneity of the component parts of the utterance is thebasis for a stylistic device called bathos. Unrelated elements are broughttogether as if they denoted things equal in rank or belonging to one class, asif they were of the same stylistic aspect. By being forcibly linked together,the elements acquire a slight modification of meaning.
«Sooner shall heaven kiss earth—(here he fell sicker)
Oh, Julia! What is every other woe? —
(For God’s sake let me have a glass of liquor;
Pedro, Battista, help me down below)
Julia, my love!—(you rascal, Pedro, quicker)—
Oh, Julia!—(this curst vessel pitches so)—
Beloved Julia, hear me still beseeching!»
(Here he grew inarticulate with retching.)
Such poetic expressions as ‘heaven kiss earth’, ‘what isevery other woe’; ‘beloved Julia, hear me still beseeching’ are joined in oneflow of utterance with colloquial expressions—’For God’s sake; you rascal; helpme down below’, ‘this curst vessel pitches so’. This produces an effect whichserves the purpose of lowering the loftiness of expression, inasmuch as thereis a sudden drop from the elevated to the commonplace or even the ridiculous.
As is seen from this example, it is not so easy todistinguish whether the device is more linguistic or more logical. But thelogical and linguistic are closely interwoven in problems of stylistics.
Another example is the following—
«But oh? ambrosial cash! Ah! who would lose thee?
When we no more can use, or even abuse thee!»
(«Don Juan»)
Ambrosial is a poetic word meaning ‘delicious’,- ‘fragrant’,’divine’. Cash is a common colloquial word meaning ‘money’, ‘money that aperson actually has’, ‘ready money’.
Whenever literary words come into collision with non-literaryones there arises incongruity, which in any style is always deliberate,inasmuch as a style presupposes a conscious selection of language means.
The following sentence from Dickens’s «A ChristmasCarol» illustrates with what skill the author combines elevated words andphrases and common colloquial ones in order to achieve the desired impact onthe reader—it being the combination of the supernatural and the ordinary.
«But the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simile; andmy unhallowed hands shall not disturb it, or the Country’s done for.»
The elevated ancestors, simile, unhallowed, disturb (in thenow obsolete meaning of tear to pieces) are put alongside the colloquialcontraction the Country^ (the country is) and the colloquial done for.
This device is a very subtle one and not always discernibleeven to an experienced literary critic, to say nothing of the rank-and-filereader. The difficulty lies first of all in the inability of the inexperiencedreader to perceive the incongruity bf the component parts of the utterance.Byron often uses bathos, for example,-
«They grieved for those who perished with the cutter
And also for the biscuit-casks and butter.»
The copulative conjunction and as well as the adverb alsosuggest the homogeneity of the concepts those who perished and biscuit-casksand butter. The people who perished are placed on the same level as thebiscuits and butter lost at the same time. This arrangement may lead to atleast two inferences:
1) for the survivors the loss of food was as tragic as theloss of friends who perished in the shipwreck;
2) the loss of food was even more disastrous, hence theelevated grieved… for food.
It must be born in mind, however, that this interpretation ofthe subtle stylistic device employed here is prompted by purely linguisticanalysis: the verbs to grieve and to perish, which are elevated in connotation,are more appropriate when used to refer to people—and are out of place whenused to refer to food. The every-day-life cares and worries overshadow.the grieffor the dead, or at least are put on the same level. The verb to grieve, whenused in reference to both the people who perished and the food which was lost,weakens, as it were, the effect of the first and strengthens the effect of thesecond.
The implications and inferences drawn from a detailed andmeticulous analysis of language means and stylistic devices can draw additionalinformation from the communication. This kind of implied meaning is derived notdirectly from the words but from a much finer analysis palled sup rali near orsuprasegmental.
Almost of the same kind are the following lines, also fromByron:
«Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter,.
Sermons and soda-water—the day after.»
Again we have incongruity of concepts caused by theheterogeneity of the conventionally paired classes of things in the first lineand the alliterated unconventional pair in the second line. It needs no proof thatthe words sermons and soda-water are used metonymically here signifying’repentance’ and ‘sickness1 correspondingly. The decoded form of this utterancewill thus be: «Let us now enjoy ourselves in spite of consequences.»But the most significant item in the linguistic analysis here will, of course,be the identical formal structure of the pairs I. wine and women; 2. mirth andlaughter and 3. sermons and soda-water. The second pair consists of words soclosely related that they may be considered almost synonymous. This affects thelast pair and makes the words sermons and soda-water sound as if they were asclosely related as the words in the first two pairs. A deeper insight into theauthor’s intention may lead the reader to interpret them as a tedious butunavoidable remedy for the sins committed.
Byron especially favors the device of bathos in his «DonJuan.» Almost every stanza contains ordinarily unconnected concepts linkedtogether by a coordinating conjunction and producing a mocking effect or arealistic approach to those phenomena of life which imperatively demandrecognition, no matter how elevated the subject-matter may be.
Here are other illustrations from this epoch-making poem:
«heaviness of heart or rather stomach;»
«There’s nought, no doubt, so much the spirit calms
As rum and true religion»
“…his tutor and his spaniel”
«who loved philosophy and a good dinner»
«I cried upon my first wife’s dying day
And also when my second ran away.»
We have already pointed out the peculiarity of the device,that it is half linguistic, half logical. But the linguistic side becomesespecially conspicuous when there is a combination of stylisticallyheterogeneous words and phrases. Indeed, the juxtaposition of highly literarynorms of expression and words or phrases that must be classed as non-literary,sometimes low colloquial or even vulgar, will again undoubtedly-produce astylistic effect, and when decoded, will contribute to the content of theutterance, often adding an element of humour. Thus, for instance, the followingfrom Somerset Maugham’s «The Hour before Dawn»:
“‘Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut,darling?’ he retorted.”
The device is frequently presented in the structural modelwhich we shall call heterogeneous enumeration
2.3 Interaction of different types of lexical meaning
Words in context, as has been pointed out, may acquireadditional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have calledcon-textual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionarymeaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of theprimary meaning, as, for example, with the word sophisticated. This isespecially the case when we deal with transferred meanings.
What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning ispractically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionaryand contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary(logical) meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the deviation from theacknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turnin the recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device.
The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed indictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in itsprimary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. Theterm ‘transferred’ points to the process of formation of the derivativemeaning. Hence the term ‘transferred’ should be used, to our mind, as alexicographical term signifying diachronically the development of the se-,mantic structure of the word. In this case we do not perceive two meanings.
When, however, we perceive two meanings of a wordsimultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the twomeanings interact.

2.4 Interaction of primary dictionary and contextuallyimposed meaning
The interact ion or interplay between the primary dictionarymeaning (the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easilyrecognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon orobject) and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may bemaintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies twoobjects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees afunction, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the readerperceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author findsit possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there issome kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two correspondingobjects. A third line is when a certain property or quality of an object isused in an opposite or contradictory sense.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identificationof two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle ofsubstitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based oncontrary concepts is called irony.
Let us now proceed with a detailed analysis of the ontology,structure and functions of these stylistic devices.
The relations between different types of lexical meanings maybe, based on various principles:
1) The principle of affinity-metaphor,
2) The principle of contiguity-metonymy
3) The principle of opposition-irony.
As it has been stated above the lexical meanings of a wordcomprise various meanings. But the difference between these meanings not begreat and unexpected. In most cases these meanings appear on the principal ofaffinity existing between the notions and objects surrounding us.
The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionarymeaning-the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easilyrecognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon orobject-and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may bemaintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies twoobjects which have nothing is common, but in which he subjectively sees afunction, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the readerperceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author findsit possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is somekind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects.A third line is when a certain property or contradictory sense.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identificationof two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle ofsubstitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based oncontrary concepts is called irony.
Metaphor. The term “metaphor”, as the etymology of the wordreveal means transference of some quality from one object to another. From thetimes of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denotethe transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely usedto designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning.Quintilian remarks: It is due to the metaphor that each thing seems to have itsname in language. “Language as a whole has been figuratively defined as adictionary of faded metaphors.
Thus by transference of meaning the words grasp, get and seecome to have the derivative meaning of understand. When these words are usedwith that meaning we can only register the derivative meaning existing in thesemantic structures of the words.
Though the derivative meaning is metaphorical in origin,there is no stylistic effect because the primary meaning is no longer felt.
A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two differentphenomena-things, events, ideas, actions are simultaneously brought to mind bythe imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on theother which by nature is deprived of these properties .Such an impositiongenerally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the twocorresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something incommon .
The idea that metaphor is based on similarity or affinity oftwo objects or notions is erroneous .The two objects are identified and thefact that a common feature is pointed to and made prominent doesn’t make themsimilar .The notion of similarity can be carried on ad absurdum ,for example,animals and human beings move, breathe ,eat ,but if one of these features,i.e. movement ,breathing, is pointed to in animals and at the same time inhuman beings the two objects will not necessarily cause the notion of affinity.
Metaphor is not merely an artificial device making discoursemore vivid and poetical. It is also necessary for the apprehension and communicationof new ideas. It is the way in which creative minds perceive things.
Metaphors like many SDs must be classified according to threeaspects:
1) The degree of expressiveness,
2) The structure i.e. in what linguistic form it is presentedor by what part of speech it is expressed,
3) The function, i.e. the role of SD in making up an imagine.
The expressiveness of a SD depends on various aspects.Different authors and literary trends or movements have different sources wherethey borrow the material for images. Favourite images in oriental poetry are:nightingale, rose, moon. Nature, art, war, fairy tales and myths, science mayalso serve as sources for metaphorical images.
We distinguish genuine and trite metaphors. The metaphors inwhich images are quite unexpected are called genuine. Those which are commonlyused-are called trite or dead metaphors. Genuine metaphors are also calledspeech metaphors .Genuine metaphors can easily become trite if they arefrequently repeated.
There is an opinion that a metaphor is a productive way ofbuilding up new meanings and new words. Language can be called the “dictionaryof faded metaphors”.
Examples of trite metaphors: The salt of life; a flight ofimagination: the ladder of fame; to burn with passion (anger). The followingmetaphors enriched English phraseology; foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head ofa nail, to be in the same boat, blind window, to fish for complements. HereUzbek examples o`q yomg`iri, o`lim do`li buloq ko`zi.
Examples of genuine metaphors: The lips were tight littletraps the whole space was a bowl of heat; this virus carried a gun; the darkswallowed him;
Mrs. Small`s eyes boiled with excitement; the words seemed todance …. Xademay, ularning safari qoridi. Daryo oqar, vaqt oqar, umr oqarpaydar-pay. Boshimdan kaptarlardekuchdi ming-minglab xauol. Gullar go`yoeshitar ta`zim.
Very often trite metaphors are given new force and theirprimary dead meaning is created a new. It is achieved by introducing newadditional images. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged: “Ourfamily rivulet joined other streams and the stream was a river pouring into St.Thomas Church” (J. Steinbeck).
Jimjitlik bor joyda xayot so`nadi. Jimjitlik toshni xam,ko`ngilni xam emiradi. Tingan suvni qurt bosadi.
Thus, trite metaphors regain freshness due to theprolongation. Metaphors may have a sustained form in cases with genuinemetaphors as well.
Usually a metaphor may be expressed by any part of speech.
The main function of the metaphor is to create images.Genuine metaphors create bright images in poetry and emotive prose. Tritemetaphors are widely used in newspaper and scientific style. Here it is not ashortcoming of style. They help the author make the meaning more concrete andbrighten his writing as it is an indispensable quality of human thought andperception.
There is an opinion according to which metaphor is defined asa compressed simile. Prof. I.R. Galper in considers this approach as misleadingbecause metaphor identifies objects while simile finds some point ofresemblance and by this keeps the objects apart. He says their linguisticnature is different.
When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and humanqualities, we have the cases of personification:
Slowly, silently, now the moon
Walks the night in her silvery shoon
This way and they and that the she peers and sees
Silver fruit upon silver trees
Here the examples of personification (jonlantiruvchi) ofUzbek languages. Xozir Farg`ona bog`larida to`kin kuz. O`rikzorlar tukinio`zgartirib boshiga olov rang qip-qizil durra bog`lagan. Tutzorlar boshidamalla qalpoq.
Metonymy—is a transfer of meaning based upon the associationof contiguity-proximity. In metonymy the name of one thing is applied toanother with which it has some permanent or temporary connection: He felt asthough he must find a sympathetic intelligent ear (Th drieser).
Guldur etib, bulut tarqab
Yalt-yult etib chaqmoq chaqdi,
Ishchi bobo seskansang-chi!
Sharqqa quyosh chinlab chiqdi!
In this Uzbek example the word “sharq” means countries andnotions of East.
The transfer of meanings may be based on temporal spatial,casual, functional, instrumental and other relations.
Like metaphors metonymy can be divided into tritemetonymy-i.e. words of metonymic origin and genuine metonymy.
In trite metonymy the transferred meaning is established inthe semantic structure of the word as a secondary meaning. In the course oftime its figurativeness and emotional colouring fades away.
Eg: nickel, the coin of the US and Canada worth 5cent: hand,a workman; bench, a judge; cradle, the place where something begins; grave,death;house, the people voting after a debate. Qo`l-ishchi kuchi, beshik boshlang`ichjoy
If the interrelation between the dictionary and contextualmeanings stands out clearly then we can speak about the expressiveness ofmetonymy and in this easy we have genuine metonymy .In order cases we have onlyone of the lexicological problems –how new words and meanings are coined .Inmost traditional metonymies the contextual meanings are fixed in dictionariesand have a note –fig .Metonymy may be divided into figures of speechestablished in the language and individual speech. Metonymy established in thelanguage is frequent in colloquial speech. E.g. the whole table was stirringwith impatience .e.g. the people sitting round the table were impatient.Terimpaytida ko’p qo’l kerak buladi.Uning qalami qasos o’ti bilan yonardi .Greenfingers ,people who have skill for growing gardens blue –collars-workers, asymbol of non-manual labor .
Metonymy is based on different relations of contiguity.
1) a leading significant feature of a person can be usedinstead of its possessor:Whois the moustache ?-(who is the man?). Olive uniforms(young men); cotton prints (women ) .’’Tantanali majlis zalida “a’lo “,“yaxshi” qator o’tirdi.
2) a symbol can be used for an object: Then I think oftaking silk ( to become a lawyer). Nicolay zamonida ostonam tuyoq ko’rmagan .
3) The name of the place can be used for somebody orsomething connected with it; It was too late for the river (a picnic on theriverside ) .Majlisga butun qishloq keldi. Auditoriya kuldi.
4) A concrete noun may stand for an abstract one: My mother’svoice had the true.
5) An abstract notion may stand for a concrete one:Subservience sprang round the counter (weak and mild people were standing roundthe counter).
6) An abject may denote an action; When I awakened old sleepyMary was up and gone … and coffee and bacon were a foot (the break fast wasready).
Certainly the types of metonymy are not limited. There mayappear new types of relations for the origin of metonymy. A metonymy differsfrom a metaphor by the fact that a metaphor may be periphrased into a simile bythe help of such words as: as if, so as, like etc. With metonymy you cannot doso.
The sources where images for metonymy are borrowed are quitedifferent: features of a person, an object, facial appearance, names of writersand poets, names of their books, name of some instruments, etc.
The expressiveness of metonymy may be different. Metonymyused in emotive prose is often called contextual and in this case is consideredto be genuine and unexpected.
Eg: The brown suit gaped at her. The blue suit grinned, mighteven have winked. But the big nose in the gray suit stared-and he had smallangry eyes and even did not smile (J. Preistley). Qo`shiq kuylar qizaloq
Tinglar uni dala, bog`
Prof Galperin states that in order to decipher the truemeaning of a genuine metonymy a broader context is necessary ( not the samewith a metaphor). Though for trite metonymy the case is not the same. We cansee this from the following examples: fifty sails (instead of fifty ships),smiling year (for spring). In the morning old Hitler-face questioned me again(S. Sillitoe). I get my living by the sweat of my brow (with difficulty); toearn one’s bread lone`s means of living); to live by the pen (by writing); tokeep one’s mouth shut (be silent).
Synecdoche is the case when the part of an object is calledinstead of the whole object. It has given rise to many phraseological unitsunder one’s roof (in one’s house); not to lift a foot (do not help, when helpis needed);
Usually metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivizednumerals or attributive constructions; she was a pale and fresh a eighteen.
The functions of metonymy are different. The general functionof metonymy is building up imagery and it mainly deals with generalization ofconcrete objects. Hence nouns in metonymy are mostly used with the definitearticle, or without it at all (definite and zero articles have a generalizingfunction).
Besides, metonymy have a characterizing function when it isused to make then character’s description significant or rather insignificant(by mentioning only his hat and collar. It ahs the function of introducing anew person into the book.
Irony is based on the realization of two logical meanings(dictionary and contextual). Which stand in opposition? It is the clash of twodiametrically opposite meanings. Eg: The man they had got now was a jolly,light-hearted, thick-headed sort of a chap, with about as much sensitiveness inhim. (J.K.)
Mana shu uchun ko`pchilik Yaponlar bunday“yoqimly”taasurotlaridan ko`raishlash ming marta afzal deydilar.
In this utterance two words: “thick-headed” means a stupid,dull person and “sensitiveness” means of sensitive person who is easily hurt inthe spirit easily offended. And “yoqimli” means “yoqimsiz”.
Sometimes irony is mixed up with sarcasm. Sarcasm is a bitteror wounding remark, taunt, especially ironically worded. Usually socially orpolitically aimed irony is also called sarcasm: once upon a time in a scepteredisland ruled a Great white Queen and enchantress…
Beloved by her subjects, she ruled with a stern, but lovinghand, disallowing anything that was not good for them…
In fact the majority of people did not have to work at all,only the rich, were punished, left with the worries that money brings.
In this text the author gives a sarcastic description of theformer prime minister of Great Britain-M. Thatcher. Sarcasm appears due to theuse of contradictory notions: a stern, but loving hand; a Queen and enchantressdisallow anything that was not good for them, only rich people were left withworries etc. Sarcasm is kept whole due to the use of such devices asperiphrasis: “a sceptered island” instead of Great Britain; litotes-disallowing anything that was not good for them; epithets-a sceptered island, astern and loving hand.
Irony largely depends on the environment. We ought todistinguish between irony and humour. Humour causes laughter. But the functionof irony is not to produce a humorous effect only. In some cases it can expressa feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. Richard Attick says: “Theeffect of irony lies in the striking disparity between what is said and wasmeant “Eg: Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. “Xali uyga kelsang, boshingnisilab, qo`yaman”. “Imtixonga juda “yaxshi” tayorlanib kelibsiz, qizim, baxongiz“ikki”-dedi o`qituvchi.
To mark out ironically used words in written language suchgraphic means as inverted commas and italicized words are used. Sometimes it isonly the situation that can prompt the use of irony. In oral speech the mainrole in recognition of irony belongs to intonation and situation. The followingphrase “There is gratitude for you!” (Thanks for you) may be said ironically,depending on the situation and the intonation with which you use it.
In the Uzbek language irony can be expressed by morphologicalform of plurality for example.
Saboxat xonaga sinchkov ko`z ugurtirarkan, nimadandir xursandbo`lganday og`zini tanobi qochib, ixtexzo bilaniljayardi.
-Nega aqalli qizlaringizniyo`qlab bormaysiz, desamturishlaringiz shoxona ekanda,-dedi nixoyatkesatiq bilan.
2.5 Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction ofLogical and Emotive Meaning
The emotive meaning of a word can be clearly understood if weintroduce the notion of neutral meaning. It denotes the unemotionalcommunication: Stylistic of emotional word and constructions are easily sensedwhen they are set against the non emotional words and constructions.
Interjections. Usually these words express our feeling suchas regret, despair, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment etc. In the previousparts we have spoken about interjections which were defined as expressive meansof the language. Emotionally coloured features of interjections after consciousand intentional intensification of their structural and semantic propertiesmove up to a generalized status and become a stylistic device.
Interjections may be divided into simple and derivative.
Simple interjections: Oh! Ah! Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas!Voy! Eh! Oh! Be! Ie! Iy! Voey! E-ha! xa! Voy-bo`y! Xaya! I-i! Yop! Ey! Xax!Obbo!
Derivative interjections:Heavens! Good gracious!
Dear me! Good! By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug!Yopiray! Tavba! Alvido! Yopirim! Parvardigor! Barakalla!, “Xe, mayli-da, uka,buyam endi qirq yilda bir eshak o`yin deganday gap-da. Voy, Xushomadgo`y-ey!”Voy, otasi tushgur-ey, dedi kula-kula Musa, -men sizni so`fi, bunday ishlargar`tabor qilmaydi deb yursam, sizda gap ko`p ekan. Voy, otasi tushkur-ey!
There are a number of adjectives and adverbs which may beclassified as interjections. Among them are the following: terrible, awful,great, wonderful, splendid. When they are used as interjections they are notused in their logical dictionary meanings. In most cases they are used in theiremotive meanings as intensifiers.
The Epithet
From the strongest means of displaying the ‘writer’s orspeaker’s emotional attitude to his communication, we now pass to a weaker butstill forceful means— the epithet. The epithet is subtle and delicate incharacter. It is not so direct as the interjection. Some people even considerthat it can create an atmosphere of objective evaluation, whereas it actuallyconveys the subjective attitude of the writer, showing that he is partial inone way or another.
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay ofemotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentenceused to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequentlyimposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aimof giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features orproperties. The epithet is markedly subjective and evaluative. The logicalattribute is purely objective, non-evaluating. It is descriptive and indicatesan inherent or prominent feature of the thing or phenomenon in question.
Thus, in ‘green meadows’, ‘white snow’, ’round table’, ‘blueskies’, ‘pale complexion’, ‘lofty mountains’ and the like, the adjectives aremore logical attributes than epithets. They indicate those qualities of theobjects which may be regarded as generally recognized. But in ‘wild wind’,’loud ocean’, ‘remorseless dash of billows’, ‘formidable waves’,«heart-burning smile’, the adjectives do not point to inherent qualitiesof the objects described. They are subjectively evaluative.
The epithet makes a strong impact on the reader, so much so,that he unwittingly begins to see and evaluate things as the writer wants himto. Indeed, in such word-combinations as ‘destructive charms’, ‘glorioussight’, ‘encouraging smile’, the interrelation between logical and emotivemeanings may be said to manifest itself in different degrees. The worddestructive has retained its logical meaning to a considerable extent, but atthe same time an experienced reader cannot help perceiving the emotive meaningof the word which in this combination will signify ‘conquering, irresistible,dangerous’. The logical meaning °f the word glorious in combination with theword sight has almost entirely faded out. Glorious is already fixed indictionaries as a word having an emotive meaning alongside its primary, logicalmeaning. As to the word encouraging (in the combination ‘encouraging smile’) itis half epithet and half logical attribute. In fact, it is sometimes difficultto draw a clear line of demarcation between epithet and logical attribute. Insome passages the logical attribute becomes so strongly enveloped in theemotional aspect of the utterance that it begins to radiate emotiveness, thoughby nature it is logically descriptive. Take, for example, the adjectives green,white, blue, lofty (but somehow not round} in the combinations given above. Ina suitable context they may all have a definite emotional impact on the reader.This is prob-ably explained by the fact that the quality most characteristic ofthe given object is attached to it, thus strengthening the quality. Epithetsmay be classified from different standpoints: semantic and structural.»Semantically! y, epithets may be divided into two groups: thoseassociated with the noun following and those an associated with it.
Associated epithets are those which point to a feature whichis essential to the objects they describe: the idea expressed in the epithet isto a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. The associatedepithet immediately refers the mind to the concept in question due to someactual quality of the object it is attached to, for instance, ‘dark forest’,’dreary midnight’, ‘careful attention’, ‘unwearying research’, ‘in-defatigableassiduity’, ‘fantastic terrors’, etc.
Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize theobject by adding a feature not inherent in it, i.e. a feature which may be sounexpected as to strike the reader by its novelty, as, for instance,’heartburning smile’, ‘bootless cries’, ‘sullen earth’, ‘voiceless, sands’,etc. The adjectives here do not indicate any property inherent in the objectsin question. They impose, as it were, a property on them which is fitting onlyin the given circumstances. It may seem strange, unusual, or even accidental.
In any combination of words it is very important to observeto what degree the components of the combination are linked. When they are soclosely linked that the component parts become inseparable, we note that we aredealing with a set expression. When the link between the component parts iscomparatively close, we say there is a stable word-combination, and when we cansubstitute any word of the same grammatical category for the one given, we notewhat is called a free combination of words.
With regard to epithets, this division becomes of paramountimportance, inasmuch as the epithet is a powerful means for making the desiredimpact on the reader, and therefore its ties with the noun are generallycontextual. However, there are combinations in which the ties between theattribute and the noun defined are very close, and the whole combination isviewed as a linguistic whole. Combinations of this type appear as a result ofthe frequent use of certain definite epithets with definite nouns. They becomestable word-combinations. Examples are: ‘bright face’, valuable connections”sweet smile’, ‘unearthly beauty’, ‘pitch darkness’, ‘thirsty deserts’, ‘deepfeeling’, ‘classic example’, ‘powerful influence’, sweet perfume’ and the like.The predictability of such epithets is very great.
The function of epithets of this kind remains basically thesame: ‘to show the evaluating, subjective attitude of the writer towards thething described. But for this purpose the author does not create his own, new,unexpected epithets; he uses ones that have become traditional, and may betermed «language epithets» as they belong to thelanguage-as-a-system. Thus epithets may be divided into language epithets andspeech epithets. Examples of speech epithets are: ‘slavish knees’, ‘sleeplessbay.’
The process of strengthening the connection between theepithet and the noun may sometimes go so far as to build a specific unit whichdoes not lose its poetic flavor. Such epithets are called fixed and are mostlyused in ballads and folk songs. Here are some examples of fixed epithets: ‘truelove’, ‘dark forest’, ‘sweet Sir’, ‘green wood’, ‘good ship’, ‘bravecavaliers’.
The epithet is a SD which is built on the interplay of twomeanings of words: emotive and logical. It denotes a permanent or temporaryquality of a person, thing, idea, phenomenon and characterizes it from thepoint of view of subjective perception: gooseberry eyes, cat-like eyes, proudboxing gloves, iron hate, waiting silence, silver hair, rose berry blond hair.
Qorli tog`lar orqasidan
Atlas sochin tarab quyosh
Gox mo`ralab o`ynashar quyosh
Xanda sochar dudog`idan.
(G`ayratiy)
The degree of individual subjective evaluation is clearly seenif we compare these word combinations with the traditional logical founded wordcombinations: black, green, small, large, eyes, siyrak, quyuq, to`zg`igan,kalta, o`rilgan jilvar, oq, sariq soch.
A comparison of such word combinations as “iron gate” and“iron will”, “temir darvoza” and “temir iroda”. In the first case “iron” islogical attribute denoting a special type of gates, whereas in “iron will”“temir iroda”- iron serves as an epithet and denotes an “unyielding will”. Thesame refers to “green meadow” “green old age”, “green thoughts”, Steel weapon,steel will,ham tarvuz ,xom yigit, polat sim, polat qala ets.
An erithet has always an emotional meaning or connotation.This meaning may be combined with denotatinal meaning or it may existindependently.
After the long usage epithets form fixed word combinationswhich established in the language and enter the group of set expressions;true-love, merry mind, lagy gay, sweet smile, heated discussions, ogir yigit,engiltak juvon, ogir yuk, qora quzgun.
Individual epithets depend on the authors stile and hisartistic purpose. Eg; He looked shy and embarrassed and wild hope came to me(G. Green) Oyni kutgan oqshomgi kokda beshik-beshik bulut yurardi. (Oybek)
Semantic criterion gives us the right to distinguishassociated and unassociated epithets. Associated epithets single out a featurewhich is essentially typical, inherent in the concept of the object theydescribe; the red sunset, the towering woods, dark clouds, pokiza yoshlik, olachipor koylak, ochilgan guncha. Unassociated epithets characterize the objectthrough a feature which is not typical and alien for this object. Suchassociation immediately brings surprising effect, attracts the readersattention. Eg; elegant books, smiling year, dim roar, the wild moon, osmon uparuylar, shaftoli gul kuylak, sargaygan dunyo, ichakuuzdi latifalar. Theseadjectives indicate properties which are associated with other notions; elegantmanners, smiling child, dim light, qiziq latifalar.
In present day English epithets can be by variousmorphological and syntactical categories. Very often and epithet is expressedin the form of an adjective in the attributive function. Eg; Bold shadows,shallow sorrows, golden autumn day.
Adjectival epithets are expressed by compounds consisting of;
1) Noun+adjective; Stone-cold water, steel-grey cloud.
2) Noun+participle: The house had a snow-beaten look.
3) Adjective (adverb+participle: much-traveled cousin.
4) Noun+adjective (derived from a noun): the key-eyed boy,her high, long-legged dreams, pot-bellied man, gun-coloured overalls.
5) Very often an epithet is expressed by a participialattributes: the gray boiling sea burst on to the sand.
In the examples given above epithets are expressed by nounsin the function of a prepositive attribute which denotes qualities such ascolour, shape, consistency etc.
While speaking about epithets we must distinguish differentstructural types such as: simple compound, string, phrase, sentence epithetsand reversed epithets. Here are the illustrations:
Simple epithets: a brainless animal, a sensible. Stroke,buyuk xasis, tengsiz mumlik, qarsillagan kulgu, mexmondo`st odam, sofdilkishilar.
Compound epithets stand very close to compound adjectives:weak-minded ideas, cast-iron opinion, a shamed-looking dog, a carefully thoughtout curses
String epithets, the structural attributes describe theobject from different points of view. Very often string epithets constitutegradation. Eg: Moving magically to fresh and strange and exciting places; amiserable, long-nosed, dirty-looking scoundrel.
Prase epithets (sentence epithets): a life-and-deathstruggle; Her mother ran up, and came into the bad-room with a worrid-end-of-the-worldfrown on her face (E. O`. Brien). Baxtingga tasadduq zaminu olam, ko`ngli oq vao`zi qora qoshyurtim!
Such constructions serve to the reversed epithet consists oftwo nouns connected by an “of phrase”, a claw of fear, a day of happiness.These are called metaphorical epithets.
The essence (nature) of transferred epithets lies in the factthat it is associated with a noun other than to which it grammatically belongs:She put her careful, not her foot.) Mr. Baker stirred with a thoughtful spoon.(Mr. Baker was thoughtful, not his spoon) (Azizbek) Boshlab fuqaroga salomberdi, so`ngra siniq va ojiz qolgan bir tovush bilan xalqqa uzr aytdi.
From what have been said above it is quite clear that thestylistic function of epithets is to give subjective evaluation of things andnotions. In most cases it is the writer’s subjective attitude to what hedescribes.
Oxymoron. Oxymoron is lexical device the syntactic andsemantic structures of which come to clashes eg: “cold fire”, brawling love” “ishbilarmondangasa” “achiq kulgi”. Oxymoron is the use of an epithet or in attributivephrase that is contradictory to the noun it modifies. Chopin’s beautifulsorrow, a generous miser, busy idleness, a beautifully ugly face.
An Oxymoron is used to give a figurative characterization ofa notion to reveal its inner complicated nature. It may serve to denote a temporaryfeature of a notion.
Eg: It was with an almost cruel joy. Suddenly she felt theneed to speak. The wordy silence troubled her: It was a relief to be on boardand no longer alone together.
Of course an oxymoron always expressed the author’ssubjective attitude:
Come to me in the silence of the night
Come in the speaking silence of a dream.
Uyg`on, ey malagim, tur o`rningdan tur,
Otashin muzlarda isinaylik yur
Yong`inli daryoda quloch otaylik,
Bu erdan ketaylik, faqat ketaylik.
The stylistic effect is based on the fact that thedenotational meaning of the attribute is not entirely lost. If it had been lostthe word combination would resemble those attributes with only emotionalmeaning such as: It’s awfully nice of you, I’m terrible glad. Oxymoron as arule has the following structural model: adjective+noun or adverb adjective.
2.6 Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction ofLogical and Nominal Meanings
Antonomasia. Antonomasia is lexical stylistic device in whicha proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa. This SD is basedon the immediate interplay between logical and nominal meanings of a word whichis realized in the text. The realization of only one meaning does not give aSD. Here are some illustrations of antonomasia widely used in emotive prose anddrama:
Mclash, one who strikes violently (compare with the verb tolash). Mr. McFaul (compare with the verb to fail, Mr. Pinch wife, one who hurtshis wife by pinching; Mr. Sparkish, a dandy, a man who pays too much care tohis clothes and personal appearance. Sir Fidget, a person who moves aboutrestlessly, shows of impatience. The same refers to Mcfission. This kind ofnames exists in the Uzbek language also: To`lqin-primary meaning is qattiq chayqalibturgan suv betidagi ko`rtana. Second meaning is his-tuyg`u, ichki kechinma,jo`shqin xarakat va jamiatdagi, xayotdagikuchli xarakat; Erkin
1) Xar qanday to`siq, g`ov, monelikdan xoli bo`lgan bemalol;
2) Siyosiy, iqtisodiy xuquqiy mustaqillikka ega bo`lgan,ozod, xur. Oydin 1) oy chiqib, xamma yoq oy nuri bilan yorigan, oydinli (oydinkecha)
2) aniq, ko`rinib, bilinib turgan, ravshan.
Sometimes in the English language capital letters are theonly marks maks of the use of antonomasia and the implication which suchantonomasia carries in the text. Eg. Lord Nobody, Dr. Good fell. Traditionallyproper name are built according to certain morphological patterns: noun+suffixes;-son, er, ard. Eg. Jon son, Morison, Chaster, Herbert, Howard, Bernard.
Antonomasia stands close to epithets. This closeness istraced in nature, not in form. From the semantic point of view the authorsstress the prominent features of a person and stick these features to his name:Miss Sharp, Mr. Backbite, Miss. Murdstone. Mr. Choakumchild (one who can stopthe breath of a child) Aka-uka baliqchilar tolmas va qo`rqmas qaytmasovlar.
Antonomasia is associated with other SDs. For example, it isoften used together with epithets. Speaking about epithets we have underlinedthat it denotes certain qualities of a person. Many Nicknames of historical orpublic characters are based on the use of such characterization. Eg. The IronDuke (the first Duke of Wellington). Old Hickory (Andrew Jackson, the seventhPresident of the USA), the Iron Lady (M. Thacher, the former prime Minister ofGreat Britain. Here are Uzbek examples. Qovoq Devona, Atala Maxsum (Bo`shashgan,lalaygan, lanj odam xaqida).
Another type of antonomasia is metonymic antonomasia which isbased on the relation of contiguity. A product can be named after the inventor,manufacturer or after the place where it is produced: Channel, Nina Ricci (Frenchscent), Bordeaux (white or red wine from the Bordeaux region of France). Thename of a painter, writer, and sculptor can be used to denote his work: “ATitian-haired girl”, the reference is made to the paintings of the world’sgreatest Italian painter Titian, women in his pictures are generallyred-haired. Wall street, the chief financial center of the USA, the whiteHouse, the US President’s residence and office; the Pentagon, the buildingwhere US Army head quarters are placed; Downing street, street in London withofficial residences of the Prime Minister, the Government. Here are Uzbekexamples.
Tonnalab paxta terib
Tursunay bo`lay deyman.
Yosh oybeklar, zamonamiz farxodlari, don kixotlar. Shunisimuximki, endi bu zo`larning ba`zilari kichik xarf bilan yoziladi. Umumiytushunchani ifodalovchi avvaldan mavjud bo`lgan va qo`llanib keladigantilningbu xususiati antonomasiaga xosdir.
We distinguish metaphoric antonomasia which is usuallyconsidered to be a cliché. Eg. What will Mrs. Grundy say, what isconventional; He is a regular Sherlock Holms, may be said about an observantperson; Romeo and Juliet, yong people who love each other.
Here Uzbek examples. Sherlok Xolmsning o`zginasi sinkov kishixaqida; Jiblajibon-mayda qadam tashlab, noz-qarashma qilib yuradigan nozik,xipcha ayol;
Oradan ych-to`rt kun o`tdi. Abdulla xech kim kutmagan gapnitopib keldi. –Yangilikdan xabaring bormi, olqindi?-so`radi u omontoydan, -xalijiblojibon boru, ja-a, amali kattami deyman-da?
Stylistic Devices of Descriptive Character.
In order to understand the linguistic nature of the SDs ofthis group it is necessary to clear up some problems, so far untouched, ofdefinition can point out only one or two properties of a phenomenon. Thereforein building up a definition the definer tries to single out the most essentialfeatures of the object. These are pinned down by the definer through a longperiod of observation of the object. its functioning, its growth and itschanges.
However, no definition can comprise all the inner qualitiesof the object and new combinations of it with other objects as well; a deeperpenetration into the ontology of the object will always reveal some hither tounknown qualities and features. In the fourth group of stylistic devices, whichwe now come to, we find they one of the qualities of the object in question ismade to sound essential.
Simile. Things are best of all learned by simile
V.G. Belinsky.
Simile reveals the most essential features of an object orperson and draws a comparison between two different things.
Such formal elements as; like, as, such as, as if, seem etc.introduce similes and comparison. We must not confuse ordinary comparison andsimile as a SD. Comparison implies estimation of two objects which belong toone class of object. Its purpose is to show the features which bring theseobjects together; if he is like his mother he must be a good-looking boy.
1. Stylistics. I.R.Galperin.M “H.S.”. 1977.
Two human being are compared. Eshik ochilib, shop mo`ylov, go`shtdoryuzidan zaxar tomchilagan Mocholov bilan birga, uning kabi pochonli,yarog`-aslaxali ikki tora zinada qaqqaydi.
The nature of simile is to compare two (or several) objectswhich belong to different class of things. Simile finds one or several featureswhich are common to the objects compared: The sun was as red as ripe new blood.(J. Steinbek). Men seni olganimda, oftobda qurigan turshakdek butishgan,qop-qora eding. Endi to`lishib, tuxumdek silliq tortib ketding …, dediJamoliddin Nuriga.
Different features may be compared in simile: the state,actions, manners, Eg. My heart is like a singing bird; I crawled like a moleonto my bed; the body was tensed as a strong leaf spring. U quyosh nuridacho`g`dek lovillab turardi. Boshimdan laptarlardek uchdi ming-minglab xayol.
If we compare a simile with a metaphor we can see that ametaphor is also based on the similarity of two ideas, but in simile both ideasare denoted by word used in their direct meaning: Della’s beautiful hair fellabout her ripping and shining like a cascade of brown water … Arbab quyningmayib bo`lganini ko`tib qaynar qozondek toshdi. In a metaphor an idea isexpressed by a word used in a figurative meaning. Down rippled the browncascade of her hair. (Down fell in ripples her hair). Shamol kuchaygan sari,dengiz chayqalar, qaynar, ko`pirar. In the first sentence the word “cascade”“qaynar” has retained its direct meaning, in the second examples it is used ina figurative meaning as a metaphor.
Similes enrich English phraseology: like a squirrel in acage; as clear as crystal; to sleep like a dog; like a streak in lighting, busyas a bee, blind as a bat, qo`yday yuvosh, it olgan tulkiday, qutirgan bo`riday,suvga tushgan mushukday, muzday sovuq, bolday shirin, tulkiday ayyor, qoraqarg`aday. These phraseological units are trite similes and have becomeclichés. The stylistic function of simile may be different:
1) Imaginative characterization of a phenomenon.
2) To produce a humorous effect by its unexpectedness. A niceold man, hairless as a boiled onion. …boshi oshlangan teriday silliq, qoshlariquay tushgan po`stakdeksiyrak sex boshlig`i
Periphrasis. Periphrasis is the nomination of an object oraction through exhibiting certain features of this object or action. Suchperiphrasis is based on one of the original features of the object: The sun wasbeginning to yawn and edge towards his bed, behind the far mountains (S.Maugham), the sun was setting. She wondered a little to and fro, perhapsclumsily, but still with marked success, maintaining her balance on those twotiny supports (A.Bennett), standing on her little feet.
Biroq qizi tushmagurning xusnimi, shirin so`zlarimi, xarqalay G`iyossiddinning til-jag`ini bog`lab, qulog`ni kar, ko`zini ko`r qilibqo`ygan edi.
Periphrases are divided into to group: logical andfigurative. In the first group of periphrasis the logical notion prevaileswhile in the second group-the figurative notion is leading and periphrasis isbased on some image. The logical periphrasis constitutes the essence oftraditional dictionary periphrasis: to turn over a new leaf (make a new, abetter start), one’s better half (one’s wife), to tie the knot (to marry); theHouse of God (the church or chapel) “til jag`ini bog`lab” gapira olmaydigan,“qulog`ini kar”xech narsani eshita olmaydigan, “ko`zi ko`r”xech narsako`rmaydigan. All these word combinations are synonyms by nature and havebecome phraseological units. Many of such word combinations are used in thelanguage of mass media. Some of them are spread in the language of officialstyle because they have become clichés.
Figurative periphrasis is often based on the use of ametaphor or metonymy; Five weeks of perfect liberty … would have prepared herfor the day of bells (for the day of wedding). He jumped to his feet, rattledhis throat, planted firmness on his brows and mouth … that his blood might belively at the throne of understanding (his brains).
“Yoz bo`yi elpig`an elpig`ichini,
Erga yo`shab soldi qishga ko`rpacha”
“Oppoq mo`ylovini burab kelar qish”
One of the stylistic functions of periphrasis is to produce asatirical or humorous effect sarcastic description. In “Come on”, said MissHand forth, “has the cat got your tongue?” (Can you speak?).
Euphemism is a periphrasis, which is used to rename anunpleasant word or expression. Eg. Death: the journey’s end; to die; to crossthe bar; to join the majority, to hop off the twig, “aqli qisqa” instead of“axmoq” qulog`I og`ir instead of kap, qo`li egri instead of o`g`ri; olamdano`tmoq, qurbon bo`moq, jon bermoq instead of o`lmoq. Usually euphemisms aredefined as words or phrases which produce some mild effect. Instead of saying“to lie” people usually use such expressions as: to tell stories, to possess avivid imagination.
The origin of the term “euphemism” discloses the aim ofthe device very clearly. I.e. speaking well—from Greek–eu=well+-pheme=speaking.
Euphemisms do not live for a long time. We trace periodicchanges in terminology: the madhouse, lunatic asylum, and mental hospital;“qizamiq” ® “gul, oymoma, xaymoma”; “chayon” ®“oti yo`q, benom, beshbo`g`in”;
We distinguish the following groups of euphemisms; religious,moral, medical, poetical. The political euphemisms always delude publicopinion, distort the political events. Instead of saying “a liar” in thepolitical sphere we usually come across such expressions as; terminologicalinexactitudes; “ishsizlar” ®ijtimoiy-foydali mexnat soxasida band bo`magankishilar.
In emotive prose euphemisms are usually expressed bymetonymy, metaphors or periphrases.
One of the stylistic functions of euphemisms-is to produce ahumorous effect or to distort the truth, to make the statement milder. Eg.Intoxication drunkenness; perspiration-sweat; tomog`ini moyladi-pora berdi,kesilib ketdi-qamaldi.
Hyperbole. Hyperbole as a SD must be distinguished fromexaggeration as every exaggeration cannot be regarded as a SD. For example, thefollowing expressions: Haven’t seen you for ages; I`m dying to see it;Immensely obliged, Seni deb o`lib turibdi, osmonga ustun bo`1armiding; osmondankelmoq, bir dunyo narsa oldik. Are common colloquial phrases used in every dayspeech. Usually individual hyperboles constitute a SD;I ought to be shot fornot recognizing it. My mother was shocked to morrow of her bones by thethought. Toychoqqinam, kolxoz osnginatuzilmagan, qon to`kkanmiz.
A hyperbole is employed for direct quantitive exaggeration:“Do you think we have anything to say one another?”-She asked quickly-“miles”.I don’t know any of my relations, are they many? –“Tons”
Hyperbole may be expressed in a periphrastic descriptive way:What I suffer in that way no tongue can tell. (K.Jerome). “No tongue can tell”means “it is very difficult to express by means of the language”. In this casehyperbole is based on metonymy (tongue) Hyperbole may be used in combinationwith other SD, hyperbolic similes: His mind began to move like lighting. Shewas as grace full as a meridian of longitude; hyperbolic metaphors; Graduallyhe was becoming acclimatized to the strange town, primitive and isolated entombedby the mountains. Hyperbole may be found in repetition. I’d have been out theredays ago-days ago. Mendek dangalchiga xam shunaqa tuxmat qilasizlarmi oshnalar?Menman degan xo`kizning shoxini sindirishga xam kuchim etadi-ya.

III. Conclusion
In the conclusion section I’d like to write brief informations about lexical stylistic devices of the Uzbek and English languageswith examples.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identificationof two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle ofsubstitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based oncontrary concepts is called irony.
There is an opinion that a metaphor is a productive way ofbuilding up new meanings and new words. Language can be called the “dictionaryof faded metaphors”.
Examples of trite metaphors: The salt of life; a flight ofimagination: the ladder of fame; to burn with passion (anger). The followingmetaphors enriched English phraseology; foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head ofa nail, to be in the same boat, blind window, to fish for complements. HereUzbek examples o`q yomg`iri, o`lim do`li buloq ko`zi.
Examples of genuine metaphors: The lips were tight littletraps the whole space was a bowl of heat; this virus carried a gun; the dark swallowedhim;
Mrs. Small`s eyes boiled with excitement; the words seemed todance …. Xademay, ularning safari qoridi. Daryo oqar, vaqt oqar, umr oqarpaydar-pay. Boshimdan kaptarlardekuchdi ming-minglab xauol. Gullar go`yoeshitar ta`zim.
SD based of the interaction of dictionary and contextualLogical Meanings.
a) The epithet is a stylistic device which is built on theinterplay of two meanings of a word: emotive and logical. Eg. Eng. green oldage.
Uzb. Pokiza yoshlik.
b) Oxymoron joins two antonymous words into one syntagm, mostfrequently attribute or adverbial, less frequently of other patterns.
Ex: Eng. Shouted silently
Uzb. Ishbilarmon dangasa.
SD. Based on the interaction of lexical and emotive meaning.The interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word is calledantonomasia
Ex: Eng. Lord Nobody; Miss Careless
Uzb. Tolmas, qo`rqmas.
Eng. The Iror Lady (M.Tcatcher, the former Prime Minister ofG.B)
Uzb. Atala Maxsum Qovoq Devona.
SD of descriptive character. Sometimes for a specialreasonone of the features of the thing is made the most essential, describes somedetail and intensifies it.
Periphrasis is the nomination of an object or action throughexhibiting certain features of this object or action. Such periphrasis is basedon one of the original features of the object.
Ex: Eng. He showed satisfaction as he took possession of hiswell-earned reward; instead of “He grinned as he” pocketed the coin.
Uzb. Onasini chizgan chizig`idan chiqmaydi. “Onasiniaytganini bajaradi”o`rniga
In conclusion I’d like to say that in many cases lexical E.M.and SD of both languages are similar in many cases.
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